Brill’s New Pauly
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Subject: Classical Studies
Edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider (Antiquity) and Manfred Landfester (Classical Tradition).
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
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Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Reccared
(43 words)
[German version] Visigoth king 586-601 AD, son of Leowigild; in 587 he brought about the conversion of the Visigoths to Catholicism (Chron. min. 2,218). Lütkenhaus, Werner (Marl) Bibliography D. Claude, Adel, Kirche und Königtum im Westgotenreich, 1971, 77-91 PLRE 3, 1079 f.
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Reception, Modes of
(4,675 words)
Cancik, Hubert (Tübingen) [German version] A. The Conceptual Field (CT) The relationship of the Mediterranean (Ancient Oriental, Hellenistic, Roman, Etruscan, etc.) cultures to one another and of Post-Antiquity to Antiquity is described with a broad lexical field which expresses the various types of relationship, their intensity and the assessment of these influences more or less clearly. More organological (biomorphic) metaphors are ranged alongside more technical or economic ones: assimilation, heritage…
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Receptio nominis
(160 words)
[German version] In Roman criminal proceedings (
quaestio procedure), the final acceptance of a complaint (
delatio nominis ) by the presiding member of the responsible
quaestio , i.e. its 'entry' in the list of the proceedings pending with the court. If the accused confessed during the initial questioning by the responsible magistrate, the magistrate could immediately pronounce the punishment, the RN was thus superfluous. Only if the accused contested the charge did the RN occur and thus the preparatio…
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Receptum
(498 words)
[German version] (past participle of
recipere , 'receive/take on', used as a noun) stands for 'commitment, promise, guarantee' in Roman law and is used for three different types of obligation business which have in common that they, as so-called
pacta praetoria (praetorially recognized agreements;
pactum D.) - like the promise to repay debt (
constitutum debiti, see below) - can be enforced under praetorial law. 1.
Receptum arbitri (
receptum of the arbitrator): The commitment taken on here involves to make a decision in a dispute. If the
arbiter refuses to honour his commitment, t…
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Rechiarius
(88 words)
[German version] King of the Suebi in Spain, AD 448-455, Catholic [2. 21-23], married a daughter of the Visigothic king Theodericus I, plundered northern Spain 448/9 (Chron. min. 2,25) and concluded temporary treaties with the Romans in 453 and 454 (Chron. min. 2,27). R.' expansionistic policies at the beginning of the reign of Theodericus II (453-466) brought him into conflict with the Visigoths. During this conflict, R. was killed in 455 (Chron. min. 2,29). Suebi Lütkenhaus, Werner (Marl) Bibliography
1 PLRE 2, 935
2 R. Collins, Early Medieval Spain, 1983.
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Reciprocity
(283 words)
[German version] Reciprocity denotes a mechanism for exchange and social integration of particular importance in pre-market civilizations and based upon the normative obligation for an equalization of the given and received. The term had initially been used by ethnologists to describe exchange processes in primitive societies, and was later introduced by Karl Polanyi (1886-1964) into the debate about pre-industrial economies. Polanyi uses the term to describe the exchange principle between symmetr…
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Reconstruction/Construction
(2,670 words)
Schweizer, Beat (Tübingen RWG) [German version] A. Archaeology and Reconstruction (CT) The constructional aspect of scholarly reconstruction was already being emphasized by Classical research theorists around 1900 [43; 44], but it was only with the advent of post-structural or postmodern theory that it became the focus of a historical discussion of the fundamentals [32] (Historiographical methods). Of the subject areas involved in the study of ancient history, it is especially in archaeology that reconstr…
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Recreation
(3,120 words)
[German version] A. The concept of leisure σχολή (
scholḗ; Lat.
schola, scola) and
otium express the state of being free from work and professional-societal duties. The etymology of the terms is unclear. They are neutral, non-judgmental terms without negative connotation in the sense of ‘laziness’ or ‘idleness’. Traditional translations, as the German
Muße (leisure, ease), one-sidedly take up the vivid philosophical-ethical discussion of antiquity about the meaningful content of
scholḗ or
otium. According to Aristotle, work is associated with feelings of listlessness,
scholḗ, …
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Recruits, training of
(845 words)
[German version] I. Greece See Ephebeia. Campbell, J. Brian (Belfast) [German version] II. Rome "Look at the training of legions (
exercitatio legionum) ... From this comes that courage in battle that makes them ready to face wounds". Cicero here expresses the traditional pride of Romans in their military training (Cic. Tusc. 2,37). In the early Republic rudimentary military training was probably carried on in the Campus Martius. Later, when citizens living further away from Rome were recruited, the Romans recognize…
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Recta
(107 words)
[German version] The first time the Roman boy donned the
toga virilis, he wore the (
tunica)
recta as an undergarment; for the sons of equestrians and senators, it was furnished with the insignia of rank (
latus clavus). The long, white
tunica with tight upper sleeves which the Roman bride donned on the eve of her wedding, which she slept in and wore on her wedding day was called
recta or
regilla (Plin. HN 8,194). Clothing; Toga Hurschmann, Rolf (Hamburg) Bibliography Blümner, PrAlt., 336, 350 f. C. M. Wilson, The Clothing of the Ancient Romans, 1938, 138-145 D. Balsdon, Die Frau in der röm…
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Recto/Verso
(218 words)
[German version] In papyrology the definition of
recto (
r.) and
verso (
v.) has not always been straightforward and uncontroversial.
R. normally refers to the side of the papyrus on which the fibres run horizontally, in other words the inner side of the papyrus scroll which is thought to have been inscribed first; it is also the side on which the glued overlap (
kóllēsis) is visible.
V. describes the outer side on which the fibres run vertically and which was not intended for writing. More recent papyrus editions indicate the fibre direction with {{rarr}} for …
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Recuperatores
(277 words)
[German version] From
re-capere, literally 'to obtain back', for which purpose the
recuperatores were originally appointed in support of Roman citizens within the framework of international legal relationships (Fest. 342 L.:
reciperatio): they were meant to help the citizens get back what they had lost (probably above all in war) or had had illegally taken away from them. They then also came to a decision in the
repetundae process (
repetundarum crimen ), in which it was a matter of the return of goods which the Roman magistrates had extorted in o…
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Recusatio
(154 words)
[German version] (literally 'refusal'). With the 'rejection' of epic poetry on aesthetic grounds, first formulated in the Hellenistic era, its affirmative-panegyric function also became obsolete [1]. In Rome, the
recusatio was first found in neoteric poetry (Neoteric poets; Catull. 68: [2. 87 f.]). Under the Principate of Augustus, the Hellenistic tradition [3] of
recusatio, justified with artistic arguments and the modesty
topos, obtained special significance (e.g. Verg. Ecl. 6; Hor. Sat. 2,1, [4]; Hor. Carm. 1,6 [2. 294]; Prop. 3,3). The attempt by Aug…
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Redemptor
(114 words)
[German version] (from
redimere, 'repurchase') describes in Roman law: 1) a purchaser or acquirer, particularly a person, who buys claims and has the actions transferred to him (
cessio ) in order to collect when they are due and thus earn a profit (cf. Anastasius, Cod. Iust. 4,35,22,2); 2) one who purchases another's freedom (from slavery, captivity or punishment; cf. the Christian term
redemptor for Jesus Christ as 'Redeemer'); 3) someone who gains something through bribery; 4) a tenant or lessee, especially a public lessee, who contracts with the state as the custodian (
manceps ,
condu…
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Red-figured vase painting
(1,033 words)
[German version] Red-figured vase painting was invented most likely by the Andocides Painter around 530 BC in Athens, where it continued to be used until near the end of the fourth century. The technique involved primarily drawing figures in outline on the orange-red Attic clay, then filling in the background with black gloss. Relief lines were employed for the more important contours, diluted gloss for the lesser ones and the drawing of the interior, with red and white used sparingly for other details. During the fifth century BC Attic red-figure was the most important fine-w…
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Redistribution
(231 words)
[German version] Redistribution is an asymmetrical exchange or distribution mechanism based on the importation of goods to a centre and their distribution. As an economic principle of supply and political principle of integration, it was important in pre-market economy societies. Although K. Polanyi (1886-1964), who used the term in his works on economic theory, appreciated that redistribution can function as an integrative principle in smaller groups such as institutionalized households or estate…
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Redones
(86 words)
[German version] Celtic tribe in modern Brittany (Not. Dign. Occ. 42,36; Notitia Galliarum 3,3; Ptol. 2,8,2: Ῥήδονες ἢ Ῥηΐδονες/
Rhḗdones ḕ Rhēḯdones; Plin. HN 4,107:
Rhiedones; CIL XIII 3151). Caesar (B Gall. 2,34; 7,75,4) mentions the R. among the
civitates maritimae or
Aremoricae. Their capital was Condate (modern Rennes; Breton: Roazhon). In late Antiquity, they were part of the Provincia Lugdunensis III. Lafond, Yves (Bochum) Olshausen, Eckart (Stuttgart) Bibliography G. Lerroux, A. Provost, Ille-et-Vilaine (Carte archéologique de la Gaule 35), 1990 L. Pape, La Bretagn…
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Red slip ware
(171 words)
[German version] Modern technical term for ceramic genres with a red finish, particularly from the Phoenician and Cypriot Iron Age. RSW is characterized chiefly by the use of illite clays (illite is a mineral constituent) and slips, which even at lower firing temperatures (800-1000 °C) lead to sintering. Iron oxides are the colouring components. The surface is often given a lustrous decoration by means of an additional polish. In Spain beginning in the 7th cent. BC, Iberian potters adopted this te…
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Reed
(86 words)
[German version] (Greek κάλαμος/
kálamos (Calamus [2]), Lat.
(h)arundo).
Phragmites communis and other species of grass are often mentioned in Theophrastus and Plinius (cf. the indexes of the
Naturalis Historia s.v.
harundo) as plants by and in lakes and rivers. The various applications of this 'extremely useful water plant' (Plin. HN 16,173:
qua nulla aquatilium utilior) and related species - e.g., for thatched roofs and as arrows (see also Pen; Musical instruments [V B]) - are compiled in Plin. HN 16,156-173. Graminea Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg)
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Refuse
(632 words)
[German version] The urgency of the problem of large volumes of refuse is, historically speaking, a very recent phenomenon. In antiquity, much less refuse was created, because what was in any case a far lower density of population accumulated neither non-degradable materials nor significant quantities of packaging materials. For most, rather, the household was restricted to a limited number of possessions, and the natural recycling quota in the form of the reuse of expendable objects by new users …
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Regae, Regisvilla
(106 words)
[German version] (Ῥηγισουίλλα/
Rhēgisouílla). Small landing site (
positio, Itin. Maritimum 499,3 f.) on the coast of Etruria between Graviscae and Cosa(e), the residence of Maleus [3], king of Pelasgian colonists, who later returned to Athens (Str. 5,2,8). In the Hellenistic-Roman Period, R. was a port of the Volci/Vulci (near modern Montalto di Castro). The place has been located at Le Murelle di Montalto di Castro; there is a Roman
villa of the period from the 1st to the 5th cents. AD there. Uggeri, Giovanni (Florence) Bibliography E. Tortorici, Regisvillae, in: Quaderni Ist. To…
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Regalianus
(157 words)
[German version] Imp. Caesar P. C[...] R. Augustus (RIC V/2, 586 f.; [1]). Governor in Illyricum, probably of Dacian descent. In AD 260, after the overthrow of Ingenuus [1] by Aureolus at Mursa, he was proclaimed anti-emperor to Gallienus by the Danube troops (SHA Tyr. Trig. 10,1; Ps.-Aur. Vict. Epit. Caes. 32,3; Aur. Vict. Caes. 33,2; Pol. Silv. Chronica minora 1,521,45). He fought the Sarmatae, who had already been threatening the lower Danube provinces for some time (SHA Tyr. Trig. 10,2). A sho…
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Regendarius
(138 words)
[German version] Late ancient official in the
officium [6] of the praetorian prefect, who was responsible for issuing licences (
evectiones) for the use of the
cursus publicus (Lydus. Mag. 3,4 and 21; Cassiod. Var. 11,29). It is not certain whether this office is identical with that of a
regerendarius, which the
Notitia dignitatum records in the offices of all praetorian prefects, the city prefect of Rome,
magistri militum and a number of
comites and
duces of the West (Not. Dign. Or. 2,68; 3,29; Not. Dign. Occ. 2,52; 3,47; 4,28; 5,280; 25,44; 30,27 et passim). The latt…
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Regia
(288 words)
[German version] A two-part building complex on the
via sacra on the edge of the Forum Romanum (Forum [III 8]) in Rome, which, according to the ancient Roman mythologizing historiography, was supposed to have been built as his residence and place of office by the legendary king Numa Pompilius (Ov. Fast. 6,263 f.; Tac. Ann. 15,41; Cass. Dio fr. 1,6,2; Plut. Numa 14; Fest. 346-348; 439; cf. also [1. 328]). The excavated building of striking structure, with a three-roomed core facing the
via sacra and a court annexe ([2] with illustration; presumably this court is what was meant by
regium atr…
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Regifugium
(250 words)
[German version] Roman civic festival, recorded in several Fasti, held on 24 February (InscrIt 13,2 p. 65, 73, 165, 241, 265), consisting of a sacrifice by the
rex sacrorum on the
comitium and his subsequent flight (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 63; [3. 197]). Ovid (Fast. 2,685-852) and Ausonius (Eclogae 23,13 f. p. 102 Green) interpret the festival as a commemoration of the flight of the Tarquins from Rome [1. 198 f.; 2]. However, it was probably rather a lustration ritual [5. 98 f.], which was connected with the course of the Roman ye…
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Regillensis
(47 words)
[German version] Roman cognomen in the family of the Postumii (Postumius [I 13-15]); tradition has it that it was granted to the first Postumius to bear it for his victory in the battle at Lacus Regillus in 496 BC. Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) Bibliography Kajanto, Cognomina, 183.
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Regillus
(42 words)
[German version] Roman cognomen (diminutive of
rex, 'king'); in the Republican era, a byname of the family of the Aemilii (Aemilius [I 35-36]); in the Imperial era, also in other families. Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) Bibliography
1 Degrassi, FCIR, 265
2 Kajanto, Cognomina, 316.
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Regina Castra
(446 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Christianity | Commerce | Legio | Legio | Limes | Raeti, Raetia Legionary fortress on the Danube opposite the mouth of the river Regen, modern Regensburg (Tab. Peut. 4,4; It. Ant. 250,1:
Regino; Not. Dign. Occ. 35,17; It. Ant. 259,3; 6:
ad castra; milestones [1; 2]:
a legione; CIL V 32909:
D(
omo)
Regino; name for the appendant civilian settlement, only passed down in the Medieval period, but possibly going back to a Celtic root:
Radaspona). Built in the 70s of the 2nd cent. AD as the garrison quarters of the
legio III Italica (CIL III…
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Regio, regiones
(427 words)
[German version] Originally a theoretical principle of classification of astronomical and augural (
A
ugures ) practice (Cic. Div. 1,17; 1,30; 2,3; 2,9; Ov. Ib. 38; Cic. Nat. D. 2,19; 2,50), elements of the division of Rome into four parts by Servius Tullius (Varro, Ling. 5,45; 49; 51; 53; Liv. 1,43,13; Plin. HN 18,13; Paul. Fest. 506,5), which was transferred to the
tribus : I. Suburana, II. Esquilina, III. Collina, IV. Palatina (Rome III with map 3). Augustus partitioned the city, which had grown prodigiously in the meantime, into 14
regiones (10-4 BC; Suet. Aug. 30,1; [2]), still …
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Regio Zeugitana
(120 words)
[German version] The name of the northern part of the province Africa proconsularis (Africa 3., with map) before Diocletianus and, later, of Diocletianus' province Africa proconsularis (Diocletianus, with map); it derives from a native name (cf.
mons Ziguensis,
pagus Zeugius; Plin. HN 5,23; Mart. Cap. 6,669; Isid. Orig. 14,5,8; cf. Solin. 26,2; 27,1). The border ran from Tacatua (Takouch on Tunisia's north coast) southwards to the area south of Theveste and from there north-eastwards via Ammaedara, Althiburus and Abthugni to the region near Pupput (on Tunisia's east coast). Huß, We…
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Regium
(701 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Socii (Roman confederation) | Theatre | | Etrusci, Etruria | Commerce | Italy, languages | Colonization | Natural catastrophes | Punic Wars | Regio, regiones | Rome | Rome (Ῥήγιον/
Rhḗgion, Lat.
Regium), modern Reggio di Calabria. City on the Bruttian coast of the Fretum Siculum (Straits of Messina). Its strategic position and the lack of agriculturally useful territory committed the city to the lucrative control of the strait. Founded in the 2nd half of the 8th cent. BC shor…
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Regium Lepidum
(199 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Coloniae | Natural catastrophes Celtic city halfway between Mutina and Parma [1] (Str. 5,1,6: Ῥήγιον/
Rhḗgion; Cic. Fam. 12,5,3:
R. Lepidi; Tac. Hist. 2,50:
R. Lepidum; Plin. HN 3,15; 115; Ptol. 3,1,46: Ῥήγιον Λεπίδιον/
Rhḗgion Lepídion; It. Ant. 99,3; 283,5; 287,7; Tab. Peut. 4,4), modern Reggio nell'Emilia. The Etrusci conquered RL in the early 6th cent. BC, occupying it thenceforward (inscription finds from Rubiera in the southeast of RL). In the 4th cent. BC, RL developed in…
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Regni
(116 words)
[German version] (Regini). Celtic tribe, who settled in the area of Hampshire and West Sussex and was part of the Kingdom of Commius (mid 1st cent. BC) and of Cogidubnus (one cent. later). The main city was Noviomagus (present-day Chichester), home to a temple of Neptune and Minerva in the 1st cent. AD [1. 91]. Located near Noviomagus and 1,6 km west of Chichester was the estate of Fishbourne, probably a governor's residence from the Flavian Period (columns, mosaics, wall paintings) [2]. Todd, Malcolm (Exeter) Bibliography
1 R. G. Collingwood, R. P. Wright, The Roman Inscriptions of…
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Regnum Bosporanum
(1,439 words)
The 'Bosporan kingdom' on the northern coast of the Black Sea (Pontos Euxeinos), the heart of which was the Kerč peninsula on the so-called Cimmerian Bosporus [2], called
Kimmerikòs Bósporos or simply
Bósporos (Diod. Sic. 12,36; 20,22). Cf. the two maps below. [German version] I. The founding of the kingdom The Greek cities on the straits of Kerč joined together
c. 480 BC under the leadership of Panticapaeum, probably originally as a protective alliance against the native Scythians. The first dynasty was the Archaeanactids, whose founder Archaeanax proba…
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Regula
(110 words)
[German version] (Lat. 'slat', 'bar', or 'guideline'). Architectural technical term used in Vitr. De arch. 4,3,4
et alibi to refer to a slat with
guttae on the
epistylion (architrave) of a building of Doric structure. In width, the
regula corresponds to the
triglyphos and forms its lower end which structurally belongs to the architrave (and not to the frieze). Furthermore, the
regula corresponds to the blocks of the
geison that are resting on the frieze. Höcker, Christoph (Kissing) Bibliography D. Mertens, Der Tempel von Segesta und die dorische Tempelbaukunst des griechisc…
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Regula Magistri
(235 words)
[German version] ('Rule of the Master'). Latin monastic rule from the early 6th cent. by an unknown author, referred to as 'Master'. It probably originated in Italy, although it is also claimed that the RM comes from southern Gaul; the oldest MS is from Italy (Paris, Latinus 12205, about 600). As the most comprehensive monastic rule, it is a very important source of information on the spirituality and lifestyle of monasticism in late antiquity. In the mid-20th cent. it became a central focus of sc…
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Regulus
(46 words)
[German version] Roman cogn. (diminutive of
rex, 'king'), found in the families of the Atilii (Atilius [I 17-23]) and Livineii (Livineius [I 1-2]) in the Republican Period; in the Imperial Period in other families as well. Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) Bibliography
1 Degrassi, FCIR, 265
2 Kajanto, Cognomina, 316 f.
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Reiectio
(63 words)
[German version]
Reiectio civitatis refers to the relinquishment of civil rights,
reiectio
iudicis to the right of the parties in a civil or criminal suit to reject a certain number of judges who would be considered for deciding the case according to the list of judges, . Paulus, Christoph Georg (Berlin) Bibliography M. Kaser, K. Hackl, Das römische Zivilprozeßrecht, 21996, 195, 198.
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Reii
(166 words)
[German version] Celtic-Ligurian tribe in Gallia Narbonensis in the area of the modern French department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence with capital Alebaece (Plin. HN 3,36, cf. Str. 4,6,4: Ἀλβίοικοι/
Albíoikoi; Caes. B Civ. 1,34,4; 56,2; 2,2,6:
Albici; modern Riez) [1] at the foot of the hill of Saint-Maxime between Forum Iulii (modern Fréjus) and Aquae [III 5] Sextiae (modern Aix-en-Provence), constituted beginning in Augustus' time as
colonia Iulia Augusta Apollinaris Reiorum, with
quattuorviri,
aediles,
flamen Romae et Augusti and
pontifex (cf. inscriptions CIL XII 351;…
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Reindeer
(228 words)
[German version] (
Rangifer tarandus, ὁ τάρανδος/
ho
tárandos, Lat.
tarand(r)us;
parandrus: Solin. 30,25, there [?] shifted to Ethiopia!). The deer-like animal, dispersed as far as northern Italy and southern France during the Ice Age, was known to the Greeks only from the land of the Scythians on the basis of plausible reports in Theophr. fr. 172,2-3; Ps.-Aristot. Mir. 30,832b 7-16 and Aristot. fr. 317 (Antigonus Carystius 25), as well as Plin. HN 8,123-124. A fantastic motif recurring in these sources, such as in Solin. 30,25 (whose report on the
pirander was adopted in the Middle …
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Rei vindicatio
(691 words)
[German version] ('laying claim to a thing', still '
Vindikation' in modern German legal usage). Originally the (ritual) laying of a staff on an object or a slave; in Roman law of the Principate, the claim of a Quiritarian owner (i.e. one in possession of Roman citizenship), not in possession, against the possessor for establishment of ownership, relinquishment and, where called for, pecuniary compensation. The RV superseded the ancient sacramental action
in rem (
legis actio sacramento in rem) with its solemn rituals before the president of the court (king, consul, praet…
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Relegatio
(191 words)
[German version] In Roman law, banishment, a milder form of
exilium ; imposed in the Roman Republic, by the
pater familias (head of the family) against members of his house, by the Senate and the magistrates; in the imperial era, also a status punishment without loss of honour for
honestiores (members of the upper class). There was a variety of degrees:
relegatio from 1/2 - 10 years and
relegatio perpetua (permanent
relegatio) on the mainland and
relegatio in insulam (on an island). In addition, stay in a specific place could be forbidden. Violation of the banishment was …
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Relics
(675 words)
[German version] (Latin
reliquiae, literally 'material remains' of mythical or holy objects or persons, particularly bones) gained increasing importance in pre-Christian as well as Christian antiquity, as material conveyors of supernatural power. The ancient cult of the dead (Dead, cult of the) and its beliefs saw contact with the deceased as linked to the tomb (Hero cult). Hellenistic cities revered their founding heroes in the midst of the city, hoping for protection and prosperity in return. In …
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Relief
(3,221 words)
I. Egypt and Ancient Near East [German version] A. Egypt Egypt had a long tradition of the two-dimensional portrayal of individual scenes and substantial compositions, initially as paintings on pottery, later as wall paintings and reliefs (
e.g. Narmer Palette, Proto-dynastic Period,
c. 3100 BC). At the latest from the time of the Old Kingdom onwards, stone steles could be added to these, erected in association with the cult of the dead (dead, cult of), while the deeds of rulers were depicted in longer scenes on the walls of major build…
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Relief ware
(1,877 words)
The plasticity of its raw material makes ceramics well suited to relief decorations, either as moulded shaping of the side of the pot itself or in the form of applied parts. RW is therefore represented in the pottery repertories of all periods. In the narrower sense, however, classical archaeology uses RW to denote luxury crockery of the Hellenistic and Roman Periods made in moulds. These wares represent early examples of ceramic mass production. [German version] I. Archaic relief ware In addition to Bronze Age antecedents, there is also a rough-sided RW, particularly of t…
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Religion
(13,714 words)
I. Introduction [German version] A. Definition of the concept 'Religion', the substantive for describing the religious, denotes a system of common practices, individual ideas about faith, codified norms and examples of theological exegesis whose validity is derived chiefly from an authoritative principle or being. For the academic study of religion, conversely, the word is a purely heuristic category in which those practices, ideas, norms and theological constructs are examined historically; however, the…
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Religion and Literature
(4,163 words)
Bierl, Anton [German version] A. Terms and Subject Matter (CT) The method of using religious materials for the comprehensive interpretation of literary texts is called 'religion and literature'. It emphasizes the productive interdependence of religious studies and literature, and addresses the question of how the subjects of religious studies can serve as a set of heuristic tools for understanding the structure and meaning of literary works in a historically appropriate way. Bierl, Anton [German version] B. Preconditions and Delimitations (CT) In contrast to the modern era,…
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Religion, Critique of
(1,343 words)
[English version] The transition from pagan Antiquity to the Christian era is generally regarded as a process mostly characterized by continuity, typified by the persistence and conscious adoption of cultural traditions (chrêsis) and philosophical theories (especially of Platonism). This view, which in extra-scholarly contexts has become condensed into the shibboleth of the 'Christian West', does not do justice to the reception of Antiquity as a whole [15]. For, since the Early Modern period, this…
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Religion, History of
(9,620 words)
Graf, Fritz (Columbus, OH) [German version] A. Terminology (CT) Neither Greek nor Latin had a word that precisely corresponds to the modern term 'religion' in its academic sense, whether to designate a specific cultural subsystem ('the religion of the Aztecs') or to refer to the anthropological constant of religion. This modern concept was a result of the Enlightenment and ethnological discoveries, and dates only to the Early Modern era. Ancient concepts focused on individual areas: the Greek
thrēskeía, 'worship', and the Greek
eusébeia refer only to ritual in the collective…
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Remancipatio
(163 words)
[German version] In Roman law, the
actus contrarius ('reversion') of the
mancipatio (formal alienation). It served, for instance, for the return of objects given for fiduciary safekeeping (
fiducia ). The
remancipatio was also a constituent act in the complex ceremonies of the
emancipatio (release from the family group). Above all, however, it was an important element in divorce proceedings in the old
manus marriage (cf. also Marriage III): if such a marriage was to be dissolved, the wife had to be released from the special authority of the husband. This
remancipatio consisted of a ce…
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Remi
(774 words)
[German version] Tribe in Gallia Belgica that settled in the Aisne, Vesle and Suippe valleys, with a heavy concentration in the middle Aisne valley, i.e. in the present-day
départements of Marne and Ardennes, and in parts of Aisne and Meuse [1. 127 f.]. Encircled by forests, the territory of the R. nowhere bordered on neighbouring tribes. When the R. had become settled in this region, they drifted so far from their original 'nomadic mind-set' that they identified their concept of the boundless world around them now with th…
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Remigius
(68 words)
[German version] From Mogontiacum (Mainz),
rationarius of the
mag. militum Silvanus in Gaul in AD 355,
mag. officiorum of Valentinianus I
c. 365-371; in this period he covered up the machinations of his brother-in-law Romanus in Africa. This and the usurpation of the Moor Firmus [3] led to his dismissal. In 373, when his misdeeds were discovered, R. hanged himself. Groß-Albenhausen, Kirsten (Frankfurt/Main) Bibliography Clauss 186 f. PLRE 1, 763.
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Remismundus
(95 words)
[German version] King of the Suebi in AD 465-469. R. was probably at the court of the Visigoths in 461. After the death of Frumarius [1. 486 f.] he was elevated to king of all the Suebi in 465 (Chron. min. 2,33). He was son-at-arms of king Theoderic II of the Visigoths (Chron. min. 2,33). He is not identical [2. 667 f.] to the pretender Rechimundus (AD 459-461) [1. 936]. R. was still alive when Hydatius [2] ended his
Chronicle (AD 468). Suebi Lütkenhaus, Werner (Marl) Bibliography
1 PLRE 2, 938
2 D. Claude, Prosopographie des spanischen Suebenreichs, in: Francia 6, 1978, 647-676.
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Remmius
(255 words)
[German version] [1] Commander of the guard for the detained Parthian king Vonones I, whom he killed in AD 19 Commander of the guard for the Parthian king Vonones I, who was detained in Pompeiopolis, Cilicia; in AD 19, he killed the king at the river Pyramus during an escape (Tac. Ann. 2,68; cf. Suet. Tib. 49,2). He is probably identical to the C. R. Rufus mentioned in CIL V 2837 (= ILS 2022). Schottky, Martin (Pretzfeld) [German version] [2] R. Palaemon, Q. Roman teacher of grammar, 1st cent. Famous Roman teacher of grammar (cf. Juv. 6,451 ff.; 7,215 ff.) of the 1st cent. AD from V…
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Renaissance
(4,510 words)
Tönnesmann, Andreas [German version] A. Concept (CT) A
Rinascita, a 'rebirth of the arts', was the term used by Giorgio Vasari in his biographies of Italian artists first published in 1550 [16]. He observed that the 'new' and 'good' art produced by his age had overcome a period of decline and - for the first time since Antiquity - had taken nature as its model. In a similar sense, Albrecht Dürer had earlier, in 1523, used the term
Wiedererwachsung (
'regrowth') in a similar sense [8]. Both terms embrace of necessity the exemplary nature of ancient art in contrast to other …
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Renting and hiring
(1,070 words)
[German version] I. General Renting and hiring today are contracts concerning transfer of the use of a property or an object in return for payment and hence an enduring relationship of continuing obligation. The objects of the contract can be physical, non-consumable objects as well as rights. Such contracts are equally suited to the transfer for payment of movable and unmovable objects. Forgó, Nikolaus (Vienna) [German version] II. Ancient Orient and Egypt There is evidence of hiring, i.e. temporary use of persons and of movable objects (primarily ship and animal h…
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Renuntiatio
(208 words)
[German version] (literally 'announcement', 'revocation'). In Roman civil law,
renuntiatio mostly indicates a unilateral declaration requiring acknowledgement, by which a right (e.g. a legacy) was waived or a legal relationship was ended. This includes the unilateral termination of an engagement or marriage, but especially the cancellation of a commission (
mandatum ) by the contractor (Paulus Dig. 17,1,22,11) and the dissolution of a society (
societas , cf. Paulus Dig. 17,2,65). The legitimacy of a
renuntiatio depended on the type of contract and the precise agreemen…
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Reparatus
(172 words)
[German version] [1] Late-Roman senator, c. AD 527, praefectus urbis Romae Late-Roman senator, brother of Pope Vigilius,
c. AD 527
praefectus urbis Romae under the Gothic king Athalaric. In 536, he was interned by the Goths in Ravenna. He fled to Liguria, and in 538, Belisarius appointed him
praefectus praetorio (Italiae) in Mediolan(i)um [1] (Milan), where he was assassinated in 539 by the victorious Goths (Cassiod. Var. 9,7; Procop. Goth 1,26,1 f.; 2,12,34 f.; 21,40). Ostrogoths Johne, Klaus-Peter (Berlin) Bibliography PLRE 2, 939 f., 1323 Rubin 2, 109, 126 f. Ch. Schäfer, Der wes…
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Repetundarum crimen
(349 words)
[German version] literally 'the crime (of the appropriation) of (things and monies) to be restored', was the crime of extortion from subordinates and allies by Roman officials, and derived its name from the money and goods which had been extorted and had to be returned (cf.
lex de pecuniis repetundis, Cic. Brut. 106). The earliest reference (Liv. 43.2) is a civil
repetundae action before
recuperatores , which the Senate permitted in 171 BC in favour of Spanish
socii against several former governors. The
repetundae action received legal foundation by the
lex Calpurnia (149 BC) and a later
le…
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Replicatio
(119 words)
[German version] As a counter-exception, the
replicatio was the means in the Roman civil formula procedure for the claimant to rebut an exception (
exceptio ) of the respondent. The latter then had recourse to a
duplicatio, the former then to a
triplicatio, etc. All these objections were incorporated into the trial formula (
formula ) and thus constituted the dispute presentation debated and substantiated before the
iudex . An example of the
replicatio is shown in Dig. 44,2,9,1, where the claimant is enabled to reply to the objection of legal force to the effect that …
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Reposianus
(221 words)
[German version] Author of an hexameter poem transmitted in the Codex Salmasianus (Anth. Lat. 253 = 247 Shackleton Bailey), which contains a collection of poems put together at the beginning of the 6th cent. AD in Vandal northern Africa. The poem's theme is the love between Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus) (related in Hom. Od. 8), but the episode is given a moralizing turn. In the end, Venus plans to take revenge on the sun, who has tricked her: she inflames Helios with love (a motif from Ov. Met…
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Repositorium
(144 words)
[German version] Originally a Roman tray, then a stand or centrepiece used to arrange and serve food for a course (Petron. Sat. 33; 40; 49), introduced probably at the beginning of the 1st cent. BC as luxury tableware. The
repositorium could have simple, round or rectangular form, but it could also have several levels and be of considerable height; it was also decorated with figures (Petron. Sat. 36), veneered with valuable woods and fitted with silver on the corners and edges (Plin. HN 33,146). Carrying away the
repositorium while a guest was still drinking was considered a bad o…
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Reproduction techniques
(677 words)
[German version] were used in antiquity from the Geometric Period on for the serial production of art. It exists when a model created specifically for the purpose is used to manufacture a not always specified number of repetitions. The intention may be economic, aesthetic (if identical products are desired) or, in the particular case of coins, dictated by the very purpose of the objects. It is crucial to distinguish this from the subsequent repetition of an original which is itself of value, as se…
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Republic
(12,321 words)
Maissen, Thomas [German version] A. Concept (CT) [86; 92; 104]
Respublica, with its different forms in the various national languages, is a markedly ambiguous word. In 1807, the American Founding Father John Adams recorded that he had never understood what a republic was: “and I believe no other man ever did or ever will ”[1. 353]. The polysemy is also present in the Greek expression πολιτεία, understood by Aristotle as a) any constitution, b) unalloyed, good rule by the many, c) a mixed constitution comp…
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Repudium
(187 words)
[German version] In Roman law, initially the unilateral repudiation of a wife by her husband. From the literal sense (from
pudor, 'shame', 'chastity'),
repudium would have had serious misconduct (especially adultery,
adulterium ) by the wife as a prerequisite. According to the Twelve Tables, as reported by Gai. Dig. 24,2,2,1, for
repudium, the man had to call upon the woman to leave (
baete foras) and to take her things with her (
tuas res tibi habeto). As early as the 3rd cent. BC,
repudium was possible without any fault committed by the woman (cf. Gell. NA 4,3,1 f.); no late…
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Rescript procedure
(222 words)
[German version] This type of Roman trial developed from the reign of Hadrian (2nd cent. AD) as a special form of the civil inquiry of cognizance (
cognitio ). Its peculiarity consisted in the fact that the decisive legal issue (i.e. not also the correctness of the facts) was clarified in advance for the specific case by the
princeps, by means of a written response (
rescriptum ) to the written enquiry of the party who would henceforth be the plaintiff, with the consequence that henceforth all that required examination was the correctness of …
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Rescriptum
(223 words)
[German version] (the 'reply letter') is one of the most important sources for Roman imperial law. In Gai. Inst. 1,5, the
rescriptum is simply called
epistula ('letter'), but classed as belonging to the
constitutiones ('imperial laws'). Already in the Principate, the emperor received queries and proposals from officials and private persons on every matter imaginable. The emperor replied commensurate with the preparation in the chancellery
ab epistulis with a
rescriptum, a draft of which was archived. Starting with Hadrian (beginning of the 2nd cent. AD), the
rescripta more and mo…
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Rešep
(227 words)
[German version] Syrian (western Semitic) god, attested in the area between Ebla, Mari, Byblus and Ugarit from the 3rd millennium BC. In the Phoenician world of the Mediterranean, R. merged syncretistically with Melqart (cf. the votive inscription KAI II 88 f. of Ibiza, 5th/4th cent. [1]). As
Smiting God adopted from Egypt in the well known pattern of 'the king striking dead his enemies', he inspired the iconography of fighting deities in the Mediterranean high and 'fringe' cultures [2], and was imitated in regions influenced by the Phoenicia…
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Res mancipi
(133 words)
[German version] In Roman law, RM were objects which (Gai. Inst. 2,22) were transferred by
mancipatio to another person. RM could be slaves, cattle, horses, mules, donkeys (the latter according to the Sabinian school from birth, according to the Proculian school only from being tamed: Gai. Inst. 2,15); also Italian land (Gai. Inst. 1,120),
servitutes rusticae such as
via, iter, actus, aquae ductus (rights of way, right to drive cattle, water rights; Ulp. 19,1) and provincial land of the
ius Italicum (Gai. Inst. 2,14a). With the disappearance of the
mancipatio, the importance of the …
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Responsa
(841 words)
[German version] A. Term and form
Responsa (lit.: 'responses', sing.
responsum) were originally rulings or opinions of sacred law made by the Roman colleges of priests (the
augures,
fetiales,
haruspices and
pontifices) [1. 19-21; 2. 313 f., 560-563]. According to Dig. 1,2,2,6, the pontifical college (
pontifex ; hence:
responsa pontificum) issued preventative or cautelary
responsa for the formulation and interpretation of legal transactions (
cautio in the sense of a precaution) or suits (
actio), and
responsa for the organs of judicial administration in respect of past…
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Responsa (rabbinical)
(201 words)
[German version] (Hebrew
šeēlōt u-tešūḇōt, literally 'questions and answers'; plural 'responses'). Rabbinical genre name; correspondence, in which one party consults the other on a difficult question of Halakha. While the Talmudic literature (Rabbinical literature) already indicates the existence of this genre (cf. bYebamot 105a), a scope more significant to responsa literature only developed in the Gaonic period (Gaon, 6th-11th cents. AD), when Jews from the widespread diaspora turned to the halak…
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Res publica
(1,027 words)
[German version] (literally: 'public matter', in contrast to
res privata, 'private matter') is the sum of the possessions, rights and interests of the Roman state, where the term 'state' is understood not as an abstract concept separable from its citizenry, but as the concrete manifestation of the generality of its citizens:
res publica est res populi (Cic. Rep. 1,25,39; '
res publica is the affair of the people'; Populus). Accordingly,
res publica is not identifiable with the modern concepts of 'state' or 'constitution'; in its original meaning it denotes differen…
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Restitutio
(499 words)
[German version] In a general legal sense,
restitutio means 'restoration'. In the area of Roman criminal law, it refers to the full or partial revocation of a legally binding conviction, as a result of which the condemned is restored to his former status (cf. Cod. Iust 9,51). In Roman civil and civil action law, a distinction must be made between a material and a formal
restitutio. In certain actions, the material
restitutio is the desired outcome, thus above all in actions
in rem such as the
rei vindicatio (action for the restitution of goods by the owner): in …
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Retentio
(179 words)
[German version] The
retentio (literally 'withholding') of one's own service in order to put pressure on an opponent to perform the service he owes is encountered frequently in Roman law. In strict law actions (
ius strictum,
ius C.2.), the
retentio was effected with a plea of bad faith (
exceptio doli ) in
bonae fidei iudicia ('actions in good faith',
fides II.) through informal objection. For example, the bona fide foreman has a
retentio against the owner (Cels. Dig. 6,1,38) for his expenses, as do the custodian (Mod., Collatio legum 10,2,6) and the borrower (Iulian…
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Reudigni
(56 words)
[German version] Germanic tribe in the cult community of the Nerthus tribes to the north of the Langobardi (Tac. Germ. 40,2) in the area of modern Holstein and West-Mecklenburg. Wiegels, Rainer (Osnabrück) Bibliography B. Rappaport, s. v. R., RE 1 A, 700 f. A. Genrich, Der Siedlungsraum der Nerthusstämme, in: Die Kunde 26/7, 1975/6, 103-146.
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Revenge
(900 words)
(τιμωρία/
timōría, τίσις/
tísis; Latin
ultio,
vindicta ,
poena). [German version] A. Social conditions Revenge, a regular central element of relationships in human social structure, is encountered in Graeco-Roman history in specific forms which are very similar in the two cultures. Revenge belongs in the general framework of an ethic of reciprocation, which shapes, both positively and negatively, mutual exchange between individuals and groups (exchange of gifts; Euergetism). Under these premises, in Greece it…
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Revocatio
(161 words)
[German version] ('Revocation') occurs in two special senses in Roman law: (1) as
revocatio in servitutem ('
revocatio into slavery'), the revocation of manumission, probably only current in Late Antiquity (cf. Cod. Iust. 6,7,2 pr.); (2) in civil actions. There, the convicted party, having already paid, could demand retrial (
restitutio ) only with the risk of being compelled to pay the claimant for the litigation a second time by
revocatio in duplum ('
revocatio for double the value') if the restitution failed. This applied for the formula procedure (
formula ) and…
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Revolution
(7,227 words)
Papenheim, Martin I. The English and American Revolutions (CT) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) Reference to Greek and Roman Antiquity in philosophy, art and rhetoric during the revolutionary upheavals of the 17th and 18th cents. is unmistakable and more influential than any link to other ancient cultures. The Germanic tradition was nevertheless able to play an important role in the constitutional history of England and indirectly that of America in the course of those centuries. In France, too, that t…
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Rex
(661 words)
[German version] [1] King
Rex (pl.
reges; Indo-Germanic *
rḗg̑-s, Old Indo-Aryan
rā́j-, Celtic
-rīx) in Latin denotes a king; in the Greek world, the Indo-Germanic term probably gave way in the Mycenaean period to the ruler designations
anax (
wanax ) and
basileús . The Imperial and Byzantine word ῥῆξ (
rhêx) was originally a mere Greek transliteration of the Latin
rex and generally refers to tribal kings of foreign peoples. According to the root of the word *
h3reg̑- ('to straighten', 'to stretch out'), the job of the
rex was to 'rule', i.e. to keep the world 'upright' and perpendic…
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