Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

, Span. Denia , capital of the northeastern district of the province of Alicante, the most southerly of the three present-day provinces which used to make up the ancient kingdom of Valencia (Castellon de la Plana, Valencia, Alicante). This town of 50,000 inhabitants is situated at the southeast tip of the Gulf of Valencia (Sinus Sucronensis), north of the mountain Mongó (in Arabic Ḏj̲abal Ḳāʿūn) which is 2,190 feet high. Because of its good harbour, north-west of the ancient P…

, called Sulṭān Dāniyāl in the histories, the youngest and favourite son of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, born Ad̲j̲mēr 2 D̲j̲umāda I 979/22 September 1571. In 1008/1599 he was appointed military governor of the Deccan, and after his conquest of the city of Aḥmadnagar (1009/1601) he was honoured by Akbar and given the province of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲, fancifully named Dāndēs̲h̲ after him. He is described as well-built, good-looking, fond of horses, and skilful in the composition of Hindūstānī poems. He figures in Abu ’l-Faḍl’s lists of the grandees of the empire ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī …

Muslim tradition has retained only a weak and rather confused record of the two biblical characters bearing the name Daniel, the sage of ancient times mentioned by Ezekiel (xiv, 14, 20 and xxviii, 3) and the visionary who lived at the time of the captivity in Babylon, who himself sometimes appears as two different people. Furthermore, the faint trace of a figure from the antiquity of fable combining with the apocalyptic tone of the book handed down in the Bible under the name Daniel, makes Dāniy…

, (plural Danāḳil), a tribe occupying the western Red Sea coast from the neighbourhood of Zūla (39° 15′ E, 15° 10′ N) to French Somaliland, and spreading inland over territory of extreme heat and desolation to the foot of the main escarpment of Ethiopia and astride the Dessié—ʿAṣṣāb road. Mainly but no longer exclusively nomadic, with some cattle-owning sections, they have formed many semi-permanent hamlets and a few larger villages on the coast and in…

, (dwelling place), house. The two words most commonly used to designate a dwelling place, bayt and dār , have, etymologically, quite different meanings. Bayt is, properly speaking, the covered shelter where one may spend the night; dār (from dāra , to surround) is a space surrounded by walls, buildings, or nomadic tents, placed more or less in a circle. Dārat un is the tribal encampment known in North Africa as the duwwār . From the earliest times there has been in Muslim dwellings a tendency to arrange around a central space: the park, where t…

, a Persian word meaning “door” or “gate”, found in many Iranian and Turkic languages. It is synonymous with Arabic bāb and is used similarly, e.g., dar-i ʿaliyya , dar-i dawlat, and in India dar-bār (durbar). In a special sense it refers to the ruler’s court, or in extension, to a government bureau, already in pre-Islamic Iran. In Pahlavi it was usually written with the heterogram BB′ (R.N. Frye)

[see ad̲h̲riʿāt ].

This is the name both of a river of south Morocco which rises on the southern slope of the High Atlas and flows into the Atlantic south of the D̲j̲ebel Bānī, and of a Moroccan province which stretches along the two cultivated banks of this water-course from Agdz as far as the elbow of the river Darʿa, for a distance of about 120 miles in a generally north-west to south-east direction. This province is traditionally divided into eight districts corresponding with the wider parts of the valley which are separated by mountain barriers forming narrows. From north to so…

(modern Dārāb), a t own in the province of Fārs in the district of Fasā, situated 280 kilometres east of S̲h̲īrāz at an altitude of 1188 metres and with a population of 6,400 people (1950). In Iranian legend the foundation of this town is ascribed to Dārāb, father of Dārā (Darius III Codomannus). The Sāsānīd ruler Ardashīr rose to power by revolt from his post as military commander at Dārābd̲j̲ird. The stone-strewn remains of the Sāsānid town lie 8 kilometres south-west of the modern village. Th…

, a vase-shaped drum, the wider aperture being covered by a membrane, with the lower aperture open. The body is usually of painted or incised earthenware, but carved and inlaid wood, as well as engraved metal are also used. In performance it is carried under the arm horizontally and played with the fingers. The name has regional variants: darābukka (or ḍarābukka ), dirbakki and darbūka . Dozy and Brockelmann derive the word from the Syriac ardabkā , but the Persian dunbak is the more likely, although the lexicographers mistakenly dub the latter a bagpipe. The name darabukka …

, Persian forms (adopted by Arab writers) of the name of the Achaemenian king familiarly known under the hellenized form Dareios (Darius). Dārāb, and its abbreviation Dārā, are directly derived from the ancient Persian Darayahvahav-(Bartholomae, Altiranisches Wörterbuch , 738; the different grammatical cases attested by Persian inscriptions, in Tolman, Ancient Persian Lexicon and Texts , 1908, s.v. darayavau ; for the ancient historians of these kings, Gr. I. Ph., ii, index, s.v. Dareios). The sources of information about these princes collected by Arab and Persian w…

, “the Land of the Covenant”, was considered as a temporary and often intermediate territory between the Dār al-Islām [ q.v.] and the Dār al-Ḥarb [ q.v.] by some Muslim jurists (see Al-S̲h̲āfiʿī, Kitāb al-Umm , Cairo 1321, iv, 103-104; Yaḥyā b. Ādam, Kitāb al-K̲h̲arād̲j̲ , trans. A. ben Shemesh, Leiden 1958, 58). Al-Māwardī ( Kitāb al-Aḥkām al-Sulṭāniyya , trans. E. Fagnan, Algiers 1915, 291) states that of the lands which pass into the hands of the Muslims by agreement, that called Dār al-ʿAhd is the one the proprietorship of whi…

(A.), ḍamān al-darak , in Islamic law the guarantee against a fault in ownership. As the most important of the various guarantees aimed at protecting the new legal status brought about by the conclusion of a contract of sale, the ḍamān al-darak ensures that the seller will make good should the buyer’s title be contested by a third party. It is possible, for instance, that prior to the conclusion of the contract and without the knowledge of the two contracting parties, a third party had inherited all or part of the property sold, it had been given in waḳf a neighbour had…

, Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. ʿUmar b. Aḥmad b. Mahdī b. Masʿūd b. al-Nuʿmān b. Dīnār b. ʿAbdallāh , was born in Dār al-Ḳuṭn, a large quarter of Baghdad, whence he got his nisba , in 306/918. He was a man of wide learning who studied under many scholars. His studies included the various branches of Ḥadīt̲h̲ learning, the recitation of the Ḳurʾān, fiḳh and belles-lettres. He is said to have known by heart the dīwāns of a number of poets, and because of his knowing the dīwān of al-Sayyid al-Ḥimyarī he was accused of being a S̲h̲īʿī. His learning was so wide that many …

(deren) [see the article atlas ].

, eldest son of S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān and Mumtāz Maḥall, was born near Ad̲j̲mēr on 19 Ṣafar 1024/20 March 1615. He received his first manṣab [ q.v.] of 12,000 d̲h̲āt /6000 sawār in 1042/1633, as also the d̲j̲āgīr of Ḥisār-Fīrūza, regarded as the appendage of the heir-apparent. The same year he was given the nominal command of an army despatched to defend Ḳandahār which was threatened by the Persians, and again in 105 2/1642 when the threat was ¶ renewed. The attack, however, did not materialize. In 1055/1645, he was given the governorship of the ṣūba of Ilahābād to which were added the ṣūbas …

, Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl , was one of a circle of men who founded the Druze religion [see durūz ]. He was not an Arab, and is called Nas̲h̲takīn in the Druze scriptures; according to Nuwayrī (who calls him Anūs̲h̲takīn), he was part Turkish and came from Buk̲h̲ārā. He is said to have come to Egypt in 407 or 408/1017-18 and to have been an Ismāʿīlī dāʿī [see dāʿī and ismāʿīliyya ], in high favour with the Caliph al-Ḥākim, allegedly to the point that high officials had to seek his good graces. He may have held a post in the mint (Ḥamza accuses him of malpractices with coinage). He is said to have been the …

[see madīna ].

[see dār al-Ḍarb and sikka ].

[see derbend ].

, one of the principal routes linking bilād al-Sūdān with the north, obtained its name from the forty days’ travelling-time required to traverse it. W. G. Browne, the only European to have gone the whole way (in 1793) took 58 days from Asyūṭ to “Sweini” (al-Suwayna) near the southern terminus. Muḥammad ʿUmar al-Tūnusī in 1803 covered the same distance in 60 days. Starting from Asyūṭ, the route ran to the K̲h̲ārd̲j̲a oasis, an outpost of Ottoman Egypt. Thence it proceded across the …

, the Arab name for Casablanca, the principal city in Morocco. In Arab dialect Dār l-Bēḍa, formerly Anfā [ q.v.]. After the Portuguese had destroyed Anfā in the 15th century, the town remained in ruins, sheltering but a few Bedouins and being occasionally used by ships as a watering-place. The Portuguese named the locality Casabranca, after a white house, overlooking the ruins, which served as a landmark for their ships. The Spanish transformed the name into Casablanca, the present European name of the city. The Arab name is its literal translation. The ʿAlawid Sulṭān Sīdī Muḥammad b.…

[see dār al-ḍarb ].

[see darabukka ].

, the pilgrim highway running from al-ʿIrāḳ to the Holy Cities of the Ḥid̲j̲āz, named after Zubayda bint D̲j̲aʿfar [ q.v.], the wife of Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd. The main section of the Darb Zubayda, from Kūfa to Mecca, is something over 1,400 km. in length. The branch to Medina leaves the main road at Maʿdin al-Naḳira, which is also the point at which the road from Baṣra joins it. From Maʿdin al-Naḳira to Mecca the distance is about 500 km., and from the same point to Medina it is about 250 km. Between Maʿdin al-Naḳira and Mec…

, one of the four pillars of Urdū literature and one of the greatest of Urdū poets, K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Mīr (with the tak̲h̲alluṣ of Dard) b. K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Muḥammad Nāṣir “ʿAndalīb” al-Ḥusaynī al-Buk̲h̲ārī al-Dihlawī, claimed descent from K̲h̲wādia Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naḳs̲h̲band and in the 25th step from the Imām Haṣan al-ʿAskarī [ q.v.]. Born in 1133/1720-21 in the decadent Imperial Dihlī, Dard received his education at home, mostly from his father, a very well-read man and the author of Nāla-i ʿAndalīb , a voluminous Persian allegory dealing with metaphysical and a…

[see čanaḳ ḳalʿe bog̲h̲azi̊ ].

, the mint, was an indispensable institution in the life of mediaeval Middle Eastern society because of the highly developed monetary character of its economy, particularly during the early centuries of Muslim domination. The primary function of the mint was to supply coins for the needs of government and of the general public. At times of monetary reforms the mints served also as a place where obliterated coins could be exchanged for the new issues. The large quantities of precious metals which were stored in the mints helped to make them serve as ancillary treasuries. Soon after their c…

, the description now generally applied to a number of what are in many respects very archaic languages and dialects, spoken in the mountainous N.W. corner of the Indo-Aryan (IA) linguistic area, in Afg̲h̲ānistān, Pākistān and Kas̲h̲mīr. With the exception of Kas̲h̲mīrī, they are numerically insignificant, and have no written history. The others are known only from vocabularies and grammatical sketches, etc., the oldest dating from about 1830. There is still a great lack of adequate grammars, vocabularies, and collections of texts. ¶ In the following account there is a departu…

, name of the Egyptian branch of the K̲h̲alwatiyya [ q.v.] order. See also ṭarīḳa . ¶

, the name given to the area, lying between the Hindū Kus̲h̲ and Kāg̲h̲ān, between lat. 37° N. and long. 73° E., and lat. 35° N. and long. 74° 30ʹ E., the country of the Dardas of Hindū mythology. In the narrowest sense it embraces the S̲h̲inā-speaking territories, i.e., Gilgit, Astor, Gurayz, Čilās, Hōdur, Darēl, Tangir etc., or what is now known as Yāg̲h̲istān. In a wider sense the feudatory states of Hunza, Nāgar and Chitrāl [ q.v.] (including the part known as Yāsīn), now forming the northern regions of Pakistan, comprise Dardistān; in the widest sense parts of what …

Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Saʿīd b. Sulaymān b. ʿAlī b. Īk̲h̲laf , an Ibāḍi jurist, poet and historian of the 7th/13th century, author of a historical and biographical work on the Ibāḍīs, the Kitāb Ṭabaḳāt al-Mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲ . He belonged to a pious and learned Berber-Ibāḍī family from Tamīd̲j̲ār, a place in the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa in Tripolitania. His ancestor, al-Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ Īk̲h̲laf b. Īk̲h̲laf al-Nafūsī al-Tamīd̲j̲ārī, an eminent faḳīh , lived in the neighbourhood of Nefṭa in the D̲j̲arīd [ q.v.]. Son of Īk̲h̲laf, the pious ʿAlī, who lived in the second half of the 6th/12th cent…

, capital of the British administered United Nations Trusteeship Territory of Tanganyika, formerly German East Africa, lies in Lat. 6° 49ʹ S. and Long. 39° 16ʹ E. The settlement of ¶ Mzizima (Swahili: the healthy town) was first made in the 17th century A.D. by Wabarawa, of mixed Arab-Swahili stock from Barawa, south of Mogadishu. The present name, a contraction of Bandar al-Salām (“haven of welfare”) at least dates from 1862, when Sayyid Mad̲j̲īd, Sultan of Zanzibar, built a palace and other buildings there, of which a few survive. So does his main street, “Barra-rasta” (Hind, baŕā rāstā …

[see d̲j̲āmiʿa ].

, “the land of the Fūr”, a province of the Republic of the Sudan, formerly a Muslim sultanate. Geography and inhabitants. Dār Fūr was one of the chain of Muslim states composing bilād al-Sūdān . Its eastern neighbour was Kordofān, from which it was separated by a tract of sand-hills. To the west lay Waddāī. The Libyan desert formed a natural boundary on the north, while the marshes of the Baḥr al-G̲h̲azāl [ q.v.] marked the southern limits. Dār Fūr comprises three main zones: a northern zone, the steppe fringe of the Sahara, providing grazing for camel-owning tribes …

, Pers., lit. “place of a door” [see dar ], usually “royal court, palace” in Persia, but in India with the additional specialized sense “tomb or shrine of a pīr ”.

name of a Muslim Ibero-Caucasian people in Dāg̲h̲istān formerly inhabiting the pre-Caspian plains and then, in the 12th century, driven back towards the mountains by the Ḳumi̊ḳs who had come from the North. The Soviet census of 1926 gives the number of 126,272 Darg̲h̲ins who, in 1954, had increased to 158,000. The Darg̲h̲ins are grouped in the sub-alpine and mid-alpine zones of central Dāg̲h̲istān, and they form the greater part of the population in the districts of Sergo-Ḳalʿa, Akūs̲h̲a and Dak…

I. Architecture. The first dār al-ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.] founded by Nūr al-Dīn in Damascus served as a prototype for similar ¶ establishments set up in Syria, ʿIrāḳ, Egypt and Palestine during the Zangid, Ayyūbid and Mamlūk periods. Unfortunately, this particular building is now virtually a ruin. The façade is completely disfigured by little shops built on the site of the rooms situated to the north of the courtyard. Of the building as a whole, some traces still exist: the walls of a prayer room with some vestiges of the miḥrāb decoration; the façade of this prayer r…

I. Architecture [see supplement]. II. Historical development. The name Dār al-ḥadit̲h̲ was first applied to institutions reserved for the teaching of ḥadīt̲h̲s in the sixth century of the Hid̲j̲ra. The conclusion that until that time ḥadīt̲h̲s were learned through the journeys called ṭalab al-ʿilm , there being no special schools for the science of ḥadīt̲h̲ (cf. Goldziher, Muh . Stud , ii, 186), is not consonant with the results of the study of materials now available. Hence, among other matters connected with ḥadīt̲h̲, the effects of the misunderstanding of the nature and object of the ṭ…

(‘the Land of War’). This conventional formula derived from the logical development of the idea of the d̲j̲ihād [ q.v.] when it ceased to be the struggle for survival of a small community, becoming instead the basis of the “law of nations” in the Muslim State. The Ḳurʾān, in its latest texts on the holy war, IX, 38-58, 87, makes this “holy war” a major duty, a test of the sincerity of believers, to be waged against unbelievers wherever they are to be found (IX, 5). This war must be just, not oppressive, its aim being peace under the rule of Islam. The Ḳurʾān does not as yet divide the world into…

, “house of wisdom”, used by Arab authors to denote in a general sense the academies which, before Islamic times, spread knowledge of the Greek sciences, and in a particular sense the institute founded in Cairo in 395/1005 by the Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥākim. Since the short-lived appearance of the Bayt al-Ḥikma [ q.v.] of al-Maʾmūn, several libraries had been founded in ʿIrāḳ and Persia providing not only information on traditional learning, but also an introduction to classical sciences ( ʿulūm al-awāʾil ) (see Dār al-ʿilm ). Such establishments were very successful in Egypt under t…

, a Persian word meaning “court (language)” from dar [ q.v.]. In Arabic authors such as al-Maḳdisī (335), Yāḳūt (iii, 925), and Fihrist (19), we find the Darī language (also Fārsī Darī ) described as the ¶ spoken and written language of the (Sasanian) court. It was also the language of government and literature. After three centuries of Muslim rule in Persia it was written down in the Arabic script, and came to be called Fārsī or New Persian. The fact that New Persian literature arose and flourished in K̲h̲urāsān and Transoxiana because of politic…

Persian “the iron gate”, also called Derbend-i Āhanīn. The Arabic form is Bāb al-Ḥadīd , old Turkish Tämir qapiy. A name used for various passes in the eastern Islamic world. The most famous pass called dar-i āhanīn , is the pass in Mā warāʾ al-Nahr (Transoxiana), in the Baysuntau Mountain Range near the modern village of Derbent located on the old road between Samarḳand and Tirmid̲h̲. Perhaps the earliest mention of this “Iron Gate” is in the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsüan Tsang who went through the pass about 630 A.D. and described it briefly. The first mention of this ¶ pass under its …

(1)—(6): See Vol. II, 142-58. (7) —Indonesia. The classical Malay chronicles are not very eloquent about matters of taxes and tolls, and the collections of undang-undang, or laws, are more concerned with court rituals than with legal or fiscal questions. More materials are available for the tax regulations under the Dutch administration. Thus F. de Haan’s eminent work on Priangan . De Preanger Regentschappen onder het Nederlandsch Bestuur tot 1811, 4 vols., Batavia-The Hague 1911 ff., contains a lot of valuable information. But with regard to the Islamic kingdoms…

, one of the words most generally used to denote a tax, applied in particular to the whole category of taxes which in practice were added to the basic taxes of canonical theory. These latter ( zakāt or ʿus̲h̲r , d̲j̲izya and k̲h̲arād̲j̲ , etc.) and their yield in the “classical” period, have been covered in a general survey in an earlier article, Bayt al-māl , and a detailed description of the methodes of assessment and collection will be given under their respective titles, in particular under k̲h̲arād̲j̲; along with k̲h̲arād̲j̲ and zakāt will be included associated taxes and payments…

, “house of science”, the name given to several libraries or scientific institutes established in eastern Islam in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries. After the disappearance of al-Maʾmūn’s Bayt al-Ḥikma [ q.v.], a man of letters called ʿAlī b. Yaḥyā al-Munad̲j̲d̲j̲im (d. 275/888), friend of al-Mutawakkil and, later, al-Muʿtamid, built a library at his own expense in his residence at Karkar, near Bag̲h̲dād. It was called K̲h̲izānat al-Kutub , and was open to scholars of all countries (Yāḳūt, Irs̲h̲ād , v, 459, 467). Another writer and poet, the S̲h̲āfiʿī faḳīh …

[see tamīm ]. ¶

, ʿAbdallāh b. ʿAbd al-Raḥman b. al-Faḍl b. Bahrām b. ʿAbd al-Ṣamad Abū Muḥammad al-Samarḳandī belonged to the B. Dārim b. Mālik, a branch of Tamīm. He travelled in search of traditions and learned them from a number of authorities in al-ʿIrāḳ, Syria and Egypt. Among those who transmitted traditions on his authority were Muslim b. al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲āj and Abū ʿĪsā al-Tirmid̲h̲ī. Al-Dārimī lived a simple, pious life devoted to study, and acquired a reputation for knowledge of Ḥadīt̲h̲ , reliability, truthfulness and sound judgement. He was asked to accept office as ḳāḍī …

, Muṣṭafā , Turkish author of the 7th/14th century. Very little is known of his life. He was born blind ( ḍarīr ) in Erzurum where he studied; later he travelled in Egypt, Syria and Karaman. His works which have come down to us are: 1. Tard̲j̲umat al-Ḍarīr , an enlarged free translation, interspersed with many original verse passages, of Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-Bakrī al-Baṣrī’s (6th/13th century) version of the sīra of Ibn Isḥāk, filled with stories and legends borrowed from various sources. It consists of five volumes and was written by the order o…

, ʿthe Land of Islam’ or, more simply, in Muslim authors, dārunā , ‘our Country’ is the whole territory in which the law of Islam prevails. Its unity resides in the community of the faith, the unity of the law, and the guarantees assured to members of the umma [ q.v.]. The umma, established in consequence of the final revelation, also guarantees the faith, the persons, possessions and religious organization, albeit on a lower level, of d̲h̲immīs , the followers of the creeds of Christianity and Judaism which sprang from earlier revelations, and of the Zoroastrians ( Mad̲j̲ūs ) [cf. d̲h̲imma , d̲…

, a village and a watering place in Nad̲j̲d located at 42° 56′ N., 24° 46′ E., on the Darb al-Sulṭānī pilgrim route from al-Baṣra to Mecca ( Handbook , ii, 189). The village was a much frequented halting place for pilgrims, for the junction with the route from al-Baḥrayn was here. The district of Ḍariyya, according to Ibn Bulayhid, was a wide territory in Nad̲j̲d celebrated by the poets in pre-Islamic times for its sweet water and pasturage. The famous Ḥimā Ḍariyya is said to have been named after the village and was part of the district (Yāḳūt, iii, 457). There is some doubt as to when the ḥimā …

[see al-dirʿiyya ]

, plural of the nisba Darḳāwī, a religious brotherhood founded in north Morocco at the end of the 18th century by an Idrīsī sharīf , Mawlāy al-ʿArbī al-Darḳāwī. His name is supposed to come from the appelation of one of his ancestors who used to be called Abū Darḳa, the man with the leather shield. He was the pupil at Fās of another Idrīsī s̲h̲arīf , ʿAlī b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Djamal, an adept of the mystical doctrine of al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī [ q.v.], and after the latter’s death, he organized a brotherhood inspired by this doctrine. The seat of this group was at first the zāwiya o…

The Egyptian State Archives, consisting of the administrative records of the governments of Egypt from the start of the sixteenth century until the present time, and stored at the Citadel and in the Abdine Palace in Cairo. The extant archives of the Ottoman treasury and administration in Egypt from the time of its conquest by Selīm I in 922/1517 until it became autonomous under Muḥammad ʿAlī at the start of the nineteenth century are located at the Citadel ( al-Ḳalʿa ) archives, which were built by Muḥammad ʿAlī in 1242/1827 to store the materials rema…

[see dār al-ʿulūm (d.)].

, in modern pronunciation Derna, a town on the northern coast of Cyrenaica which is to-day the second most important in the region after Beng̲h̲āzī. It is situated in a little plain along the banks of a wādī of the same name, bounded by the plateau of the al-D̲j̲abal al-Ak̲h̲ḍar, which forms a steep slope to the south and touches the sea to the east and west, but thanks to its never-failing springs it is rich in palms (8,000) and in orange and other fruit trees. Darna owes its origin to the Greeks who founded …

, a kind of town hall in Mecca in the time of Muḥammad. The building was to the north of the Kaʿba, on the other side of the square in which the ṭawāf took place. It was the gathering place of the nobles ( malaʾ ). The Dār al-Nadwa is said to have been built by Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.], who is taken to be the ancestor of the Ḳurays̲h̲ and founder of the Kaʿba. He bequeathed it to ʿAbd al-Dār and then to ʿAbd Manāf and his son Hās̲h̲im and Hās̲h̲im’s descendants. “All matters of import to the Ḳurays̲h̲” are said to have taken place there up to the coming of Islam…

[see saray ].

, “Abode of Peace”, is in the first place a name of Paradise in the Ḳurʾān (vi, 127; x, 26), because, says Bayḍāwī, it is a place of security ( salāma ) from transitoriness and injury, or because God and the angels salute ( sallama ) those who enter it. Hence it was given to the city of Bag̲h̲dād by al-Manṣūr, as well as Madīnat al-Salām (cf. bag̲h̲dād , and also the geographical lexicon of Yāḳūt, ad init.). For the capital of Tanganyika see dar-es-salaam. (T.H. Weir*)

, also less correctly darsan, a Sanskrit word ( darśana , from the root dṛś “see”) meaning “showing, being visible”; hence, the ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects. This Hindū practice was adopted by the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī , i, 73) and his immediate successors. The English traveller Coryat records that Ḏj̲ahāngīr in Āgra used to present himself three times a day from a canopied window. The failure of S̲h̲āhd̲j̲ahān to appear during his illness at the end of 1067/September 1657 led to rumours of his death. The practice of dars̲h̲an was …

[see bīmāristān iii].

(also, but more rarely: Dār al-ṣanʿa ). Etymologically, this compound can be translated “industrial establishment, workshop”. In fact it is always applied to a State workshop: for example, under the Umayyads in Spain to establishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture and stock-piling of arms. But the sense most widely used is that of “establishment for the construction and equipment of warships”: dār ṣināʿa li-ins̲h̲āʾ al-sufun ; or simply dār al-ins̲h̲āʾ , which also occurs. This does not include the arsen…

, or Dārṣīnī (Persian dār čīnī “Chinese wood”) is the Chinese cinnamon ( Cinnamomum cassia ), next to the Ceylonese cinnamon ( Cinn. zeylanicum ) the most valuable spice from plants of the cinnamon species, of the family of the Lauraceae, perhaps the oldest spice altogether. The rind of the branch of the cinnamon-tree was used in China as medicine, aromatic substance and spice already in the 3rd millennium B.C., and reached the Near East and the ¶ Mediterranean countries in the 2nd millennium. It cannot be established with certainty with what original plant dārṣīnī …

‘the House of Truce’, territories not conquered by Muslim troops but by buying peace by the giving of tribute, the payment of which guarantees a truce or armistice ( hudna , ṣulḥ ). The two historic examples of such a situation, which were evidently the starting-point for the whole theory, are Nad̲j̲rān and Nubia. Muḥammad himself concluded a treaty with the Christian population of Nad̲j̲rān, guaranteeing their security and imposing on them certain obligations which were later looked on as k̲h̲arād̲j̲ [ q.v.] by some, and as d̲j̲izya [ q.v.] by others (for the whole question see Bal…

[see ik̲h̲tilāf ].

[see maṭbaʿa ].

[see Ṭirāz ].

The word is derived from the Mongol daru-, ‘to press, to seal’ and was used to denote a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy (K. H. Menges, Glossar zu den Volkskundlichen Texten aus Ost. Turkistan , ii, Wiesbaden 1955, 714 s.v. dor γ a; B. Vladimirtsov, Le régime social des Mongols , Paris 1948, 181, 209, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’or , Paris 1950,73). In 617-8/1221 there was a Mongol dārūk̲h̲ačī , or representative of the head of the empire, in Almālīg̲h̲ beside the native ruler. The duties laid upon him included the makin…

or the “House of Sciences”, (a) an establishment for higher instruction founded in 1872 by ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a Mubārak [ q.v.]. Its aim was to introduce a certain number of students of al-Azhar [ q.v.] to modern branches of learning by means ¶ of a five year course, in order to fit them for teaching in the new schools. In fact, as other centres were created in Cairo for the teaching of science, its curriculum was remodelled a number of times and the exact sciences were relegated to the background. The length of the course was reduced to four …

, the name of a coastal plain in Palestine, and later in particular the name of a famous fortress of the time of the Crusades, is to be found in the works of Arab authors with both these meanings. The Hebrew dārōm from which it is derived and to which it corresponds in the Arabic version of Deuteronomy, XXXIV, 3°, appeared in a few passages of the Old Testament for south as a cardinal point, or any country situated in the south (F. M. Abel), and it was later applied especially to the south-west of Judea, a low-lyi…

, necessity (also iḍṭirār ), in works of fiḳh has a narrow meaning when it is used to denote what may be called the technical state of necessity, and a wider sense when authors use it to describe the necessities or demands of social and economic life, which the jurists had to take into account in their elaboration of the law which was otherwise independent of these factors. I. The state of necessity, whose effects recall those of violence, does not result from threats expressed by a person, but from certain factual circumstances which may oblige an individual, f…

( Darwēs̲h̲ ) is commonly explained as derived from Persian and meaning “seeking doors”, i.e., a mendicant (Vullers, Lexicon , i, 839a, 845b; Gr. I. Ph., i/1, 260; ii, 43, 45); but the variant form daryōs̲h̲ is against this, and the real etymology appears to be unknown. Broadly through Islam it is used in the sense of a member of a religious fraternity, but in Persian and Turkish more narrowly for a mendicant religious called in Arabic a faḳīr . In Morocco and Algeria for dervishes, in the broadest sense, the word most used is Ik̲h̲wān , “brethren”, pronounced k̲h̲uān . These fraternities ( ṭuruḳ …

, Deryā-beyi , sea-lord, a title given in the Ottoman Empire to certain officers of the fleet. In the 9th/15th century the term deryā-beyi or deñiz-beyi is sometimes used of the commandant of Gallipoli [see gelibolu ], who had the rank of Sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi, and was the naval commander-inchief until the emergence of the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. In the 10th/16th century the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a became, as well as an admiral, the governor of an eyālet , which consisted of a group of ports and islands [see d̲j̲azā’ir-i baḥr-i safīd ]. This province, like others, was divide…

, local governor in Bihār under the Dihlī sultans. His original name is not known, Masnad-i ʿĀlī Daryā K̲h̲ān being his honorific title. He was the third son of Masnad-i ʿĀlī Mubārak K̲h̲ān Noḥānī, Sultan Bahlūl’s muḳṭaʿ or governor of the province of Karā and Manīkpūr. Daryā Ḵh̲ān Noḥānī attached himself to Prince Niẓām Ḵh̲ān (later Sultan Sikandar S̲h̲āh) during the reign of Sultan Bahlūl Lōdī. The first important event of his life was the battle of Ambāla, fought between Prince Niẓām K̲h̲ān and Tatār K̲h̲ān Yūsuf K̲h̲ayl, the rebel muḳṭaʿ of the Pand̲j̲āb in 890/1485. In 895/1490 …

[see urmiya ]

, the Ḳi̊pčaḳ Steppe, was the Islamic name of the territory called Comania by Christian writers: the great plains of what is now Southern Russia and Western Kazakhstan. Both names were given while This region was still dominated by the Ḳi̊pčaḳ or Comans (the Das̲h̲t-i Ḳi̊pcāḳ is mentioned in the Dīwān of Nāṣir-i K̲h̲usraw, who died between 465/1072 and 470/1077): they were retained when it passed under the control of the Golden Horde [see batu’ids ], who subjected and absorbed the Ḳi̊pčaḳ whilst adopting their speech in place of their native Mongo…

, name of four places in ʿIrāḳ, viz: 1. a town on the Diyālā N. E. of Bag̲h̲dād, 2. a. village in the district of Nahr al-Malik W. of Bag̲h̲dād, 3. a village near D̲j̲abbul, S. of Bag̲h̲dād, 4. a village in K̲h̲ūzistān (cf. Yāḳūt, ii, 575; Marāṣid , i, 402; cf. Muḳaddasī, 26). Daskara is arabicized from the Pahlavi dastakarta (Dastkarta, Dastakrta), modern Persian Dastad̲j̲ird [ q.v.]; it means a post, a village, a town or simply level ground (see Herzfeld, Geschichte der Stadt Samarra , Hamburg 1948, 44; J. Markwart, A catalogue of the provincial capitals of Eranshahr , …

, Arabicized form of the Persian Dastagard, the name of a number of towns in the Sasanian empire. See daskara .

[see Ḥamāsa ].

[see dustūr ].

, nicknamed Abu ’l-ʿAynayn , founder of the Dasūḳiyya order, also known as the Burhāniyya or Burhāmiyya, the ¶ followers being generally called Barāhima. Born most probably at the village of Marḳus in the G̲h̲arbiyya district of Lower Egypt in the year 633/1235 according to S̲h̲aʿrānī in Lawāḳiḥ (but 644/1246 according to Maḳrīzī in Kitāb al-Sulūk and 653/1255 according to Ḥasan b. ʿAlī S̲h̲āmma the commentator on his ḥizb ) he spent most of his life in the neighbouring village of Dasūḳ or Dusūḳ where he died at the age of 43 and was buried. His father (buried at Marḳus) was a famous local walī …

b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , a Sūfī of repute, b. 833/1429, d. in Damascus S̲h̲aʿbān 919/October 1513, author of collections of prayers ( wird , ḥizb). (C. Brockelmann*) Bibliography Ibn al-ʿImād, S̲h̲ad̲h̲arāt, year 919 Brockelmann, II, 153 S II, 153.

( ʿAbd al-G̲h̲affār ), a descendant of Mūsā, brother of the Ṣūfī Ibrāhīm Dasūḳī (see the preceding article) born in 1226/1811 in a poor family following the Mālikī ritual. After completing his elementary education in his native place of Dasūḳ, he attended the lectures of distinguished S̲h̲ayk̲h̲s at the Azhar Mosque, among whom was the celebrated Mālikī Muḥammad ʿIllīs̲h̲ (d. 1299/1882). After himself lecturing in the Azhar for a short time, he entered the employment of the st…

[see hud̲j̲wīrī ].

[see tamr ].

( in Ḳatabanic inscriptions), a district in South Arabia, situated between the lands of the ʿAwd̲h̲illa (see art. ʿawd̲h̲alī ), in the north-west and the ʿAwāliḳ (see art. ʿawlaḳī ), in the east. It belongs to the Western Aden Protectorate and has ca. 8000 inhabitants. The country is called by Hamdānī g̲h̲āʾiṭ , a steppe, a description still applicable to the greater portion of it. The climate is dry and the soil is fertile only in the north-east, where it produces tobacco, wheat and maize. Dat̲h̲īna is inhabited by two larg…

, etc. [see dāwūd , dāwūd b. k̲h̲alaf , etc.].

[see dāwūd ].

, action at law. According to a well-known formula the daʿwā is defined as: “the action by which a person claims his right, against another person, in the presence of a judge” ( Mad̲j̲alla , art. 1613). A case submitted to an arbitrator is, equally, a daʿwā. The plaintiff is termed muddaʿī , the defendant muddaʿā alayh and the object of the claim ¶ muddaʿā or, more popularly—though less accurately, as certain writers note,— muddaʿā bihi. We also meet, particularly in the Mālikī mad̲h̲hab , the terms ṭālib (plaintiff) and maṭlūb (defendant). The parties to the suit are called, in the dual, k̲h̲aṣ…

, pl. daʿawāt , from the root daʿā , to call, invite, has the primary meaning call or invitation. In the Ḳurʾān , XXX, 24, it is applied to the call to the dead to rise from the tomb on the day of Judgement. It also has the sense of invitation to a meal and, as a result, of a meal with guests, walīma : al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Nikāḥ , 71, 74; LA, xviii, 285. It also means an appeal to God, prayer, vow: al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Daʿawāt , beginning and 26, Wuḍūʾ , 69, Anbiyāʾ , 9 (Abraham’s prayer, cf. Ḳurʾān, II, 123), 40 (Solomon’s prayer, cf. Ḳurʾān, XXXVIII, 34; see also Ḳurʾān, II, 182; X, 89; XIIII; XV; XL, 46 (to which…

[see adwiya ].

, also Dawātdār , Duwaydār and Amīr Dawāt , the bearer and keeper of the royal inkwell. Under the ʿAbbāsids the emblem of office of the wazīr was an inkwell. The post of dawādār was created by the Sald̲j̲ūḳs, and was held by civilians. Sultan Baybars transferred it to a Mamlūk Amīr of Ten. Under the Baḥrī Mamlūks the dawādār did not rank among the important amīrs, but under the Circassians he became one of the highest amīrs of the sultanate, with the title Grand Dawādār ( dawādār kabīr ), and with a number of dawādārs under him. The office of dawādār ranked among the seven most important office…

, plural of dāʾira , group of families attached to the service and the person of a native chief in Algeria. Before the French conquest, the name of dawāʾir (local pronunciation dwāyr ) was borne especially by four tribal groups encamped to the south-west of Oran and attached to the service of the Bey of that city, although there were other dawāʾir, for example in the Titteri. They were organized as a militia, living on the products of the ¶ land put at their disposition by the Turkish government and the profit from expeditions against tribes who were unruly or refused to p…

(sometimes Dūʿan), one of the principal southern tributaries of Wādī Ḥaḍramawt. Dawʿan, a deep narrow cleft in al-D̲j̲awl, runs c. 100 km. almost due north to join the main wādī opposite the town of Haynan. The precipitous walls of Dawʿan are c. 300 m. high; its towns nestle against the lower slopes with their palm groves lying in the valley bed below. The valley is formed by the confluence of two branches, al-Ayman (pronounced layman ) and al-Aysar (pronounced laysar ), with al-Ayman often reckoned an integral part of Dawʿan proper. Among the cluster …

, Muḥammad b. Asʿad D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn , was born in 830/1427 at Dawān in the district of Kāzarūn, where his father was Ḳāḍī; he claimed descent from the Caliph Abū Bakr whence his nisba al-Ṣiddīḳī. He studied with his father and then went to S̲h̲īrāz where he was a pupil of Mawlānā Muḥyī ’l-Dīn Gūs̲h̲a Kinārī and Mawlānā Humām al-Dīn Gulbārī and Ṣafī al-Dīn Īd̲j̲ī. He held the office of Ṣadr under Yūsuf b. D̲j̲ahāns̲h̲āh, the Ḳarā Ḳoyūnlū, and after resigning this office became Mudarris of the Begum Madrasa, also known as the Dār al-Aytām . Under the Āḳ Ḳoyūnlū he beca…

[see zamīn-i dāwar ].

, an encampment of Arab Bedouins in which the tents (sing, k̲h̲ayma ) are arranged in a circle or an ellipse, forming a sort of enceinte around the open space in the middle ( murāḥ ) where the cattle pass the night; this very ancient way of laying out an encampment is still to be found among the Bedouins of the east (northern Syria, Mesopotamia) and among all the nomads or semi-nomads of North Africa. The name of dawār which is given to it appears already in the writings of certain travellers ¶ and geographers of the middle ages. In the East, the exact form of the word is dawār or dwār …

, one of the Muslim trading states of southern Ethiopia. It was a long narrow strip of territory lying immediately east of Bali, and included the great Islamic centre of Harar. It seems to have reached the Webi Shabelle in the south, and the edge of the Danāḳil lowlands in the north, where, with Bali, it met the state of Ifāt. It is clear, however, that for a time at least, and as early as the reign of ʿĀmda Ṣyon I of Ethiopia, there was an isolated continuation of Dawāro on the north side of th…

(singular: Dawsarī), a large tribe based in central Arabia. The Dawāsir are remarkable for the way in which many of them have spread abroad and won success in areas and endeavours remote from their original environment, while at the same time even the settled elements among them have retained an unusually strong sentiment of tribal solidarity and attachment to the mores of their Bedouin forebears. Whatever the origins of the tribe, the Dawāsir became primarily identified with Wādī al-Dawāsir in southern Nad̲j̲d (the closest of the populated districts there to…

, ink holder, a synonym for miḥbara , “inkwell”. The term is also used for miḳlama , a place for keeping the ḳalam or pen, and more generally for ḳalamdān , penbox. Islamic treatises describe the various ways of preparing ink and give different accounts of inkwells, miḥbara or dawāt , that were used in their time. The dawāt is, according to al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, “the mother of all writing tools”, and “a scribe without an inkpot resembles a man who enters a fight without a weapon”. Following traditional religious relationships between the art of writing, me…