Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

, a name derived from the ancient Egyptian Timinhur, the city of Horus. It is not surprising that a number of cities of this name are to be found, almost all in the Nile Delta. I. Damanhūr al-S̲h̲ahid. Damanhūr “of the Martyr”, one of the northern suburbs of Cairo. This was the name still used by Yāḳūt, but the village was later known as Damanhūr S̲h̲ubrā. a name which was however already known to al-Muḳaddasī. Ibn Mammātī calls it simply Damanhūr. The two names are sometimes inverted and certain authors speak of S̲h̲ubrā Damanhū…

[see maʿdin ].

[see dimas̲h̲ḳ ].

, the highest point in the mountains on the borders of Northern Persia (cf. Alburz ), somewhat below 36° N. Lat. and about 50 miles north-east of Tehran. According to de Morgan it rises out of the plateau of Rēhne to a height of 13,000 feet above it. The various estimates of its height differ: Thomson estimates it at 21,000 feet (certainly too high), de Morgan at 20,260 feet, Houtum Schindler at 19,646, Sven Hedin at 18,187, and in the last edition of Stieler’s Handatlas (1910) it is given as 18,830 feet. Its summit, perpetually snow-clad and almost always…

a town on the main highway between Tehran and Mas̲h̲had, some 344 km. east of Tehran; also, a station on the railway between Tehran and Mas̲h̲had. At an altitud…

[see dimyāṭ ]. ¶

…

, Muḥammad b. Mūsā b. ʿĪsā Kamāl al-dīn , was born in Cairo about the beginning of the year 742/1341 (according to a note in his own handwriting quoted by al-Sak̲h̲āwī, 59) and died there in 808/1405. Later dates of his birth, as given in some sources (745/1344 or 750/1349), would hardly be consistent with certain details of his biography. His nisba is derived from the northernmost of the two townlets both called Damīra near Samannūd in the Delta. After first gaining his livelihood as a tailor in his native town he decided to become a professional theologian, choosing as his main teacher the famous S̲h̲āfiʿī scholar Bahāʾ al-Dīn al-Subkī [ q.v.], with whom he became closely associated for years. He also studied under D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn al-Asnawī (Brockel-mann I, no, S II, 107), Ibn al-ʿAḳīl, the renowned commentator of Ibn Mālik’s …

[see Ḥaraka ].

, a port on the Persian Gulf and capital of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The name formerly designated a tower fort, located at 26° 27′ 56′′ N., 50° 06′ 06′′ E., on a reef near the ¶ shore north of the present town. The origin of the fort is not known, although the structure razed in 1957 to make way for a small-craft pier appeared to date from the time of the redoubtable D̲j̲alāhima sea captain Raḥma b. D̲j̲ābir [ q.v.]. Ibn D̲j̲ābir built a fort at al-Dammām after allying himself with Āl Saʿūd about 1809, but the Saʿūdīs destroyed it in 1231/1816 when he deserted their cause to attack al-Baḥrayn. Two years later he assisted the Turco-Egyptian forces of Ibrāhīm Pās̲h̲ā to capture al-Ḳaṭīf and re-established himself in al-Dammām. He immediately rebuilt the fort, which with its dependent fortifications and village settlement on the adjoining shore became the base for his naval activities against Āl K̲h̲alīfa of…

( Demnate…

Aḥmad , Egyptian historian of the 12th/18th century. Nothing is known of his life beyond the fact that he held the post of katk̲h̲udā of the ʿAzabān regiment in Cairo, but he may have been a relative of the rūznāmed̲j̲i Ḥasan Efendi al-Damurdās̲h̲ī, who flourished in the early 11th/17th century, and about whose doings he is well informed). His chronicle, …

[see sikka ].

[see danḳalī ].

…

, Dandānaḳān , a small town in the sand desert between Marw and Sarak̲h̲s in mediaeval K̲h̲urāsān and 10 farsak̲h̲ s or 40 miles from the former city. The site of the settlement is now in the Turkmenistan SSR, see V.A. Zhukovsky, Razvalini̊ Starago Merva , St. Petersburg 1894, 38. The geographers of the 4th/10th century mention that it was well-fortified and was surrounded by a wall 500 paces in circumference, the baths and a ribāṭ or caravanserai lying outside this wall (Ibn Ḥawḳal2 , 436-7, 456, tr. Kramers-Wiet, 422, 440; Ḥudūd al-ʿālam , tr. Minorsky, 105). Whe…

, Abū ʿAmr ʿUthmān b. Saʿīd b. ʿUmar al-Umawī , Mālikī lawyer and above all, “reader” of the Ḳurʾān, born at Cordova in 371/ 981/2. After having made…

[see dāniyāl ]

[see d̲j̲āmiʿa ].

, a Turcoman dynasty which reigned in northern Cappadocia from the last quarter of the 5th/11th century until 573/1178. The origins and first conquests of its founder, Amīr Dānis̲h̲mend, are obscure. Appearing in Cappadocia during the years of anarchy which followed the death, in 781/1085, of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid Sulaymān b. Kutlumi̊s̲h̲, he became involved in the events of the First Crusade. When historians became interested in him they resorted to legends or imagination to fill the gaps in their kn…

, Span. Denia , capital of the northeastern district of the province of Alicante, the most southerly of the three present-day provinces which used to make up the ancient kingdom of Valencia (Castellon de la Plana, Valencia, Alicante). This town of 50,000 inhabitants is situated at the southeast tip of …

, called Sulṭān Dāniyāl in the histories, the youngest and favourite son of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, born Ad̲j̲mēr 2 D̲j̲umāda I 979/22 September 1571. In 1008/1599 he was appointed military governor of the Deccan, and after his conquest of the city of Aḥmadnagar (1009/1601) he was honoured by Akbar and given the province of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲, …

Muslim tradition has retained only a weak and rather confused record of the two biblical characters bearing the name Daniel, the sage of ancient times mentioned by Ezekiel (xiv, 14, 20 and xxviii, 3) and the visionary who lived at the time of the captivity in Babylon, who himself sometimes appears as two different people. Furthermore, the faint trace of a figure from the antiquity of fable combining with the apocalyptic tone of the book handed down in the Bible under the name Daniel, makes Dāniy…

, (plural Danāḳil), a tribe occupying the western Red Sea coast from the neighbourhood of Zūla (39° …

, (dwelling place), house. The two words most commonly used to designate a dwelling place, bayt and dār , have, etymologically, quite different meanings. Bayt is, properly speaking, the covered shelter where one may spend the night; dār (from dāra , to surround) is a space surrounded by walls, buildings, or nomadic tents, placed more or less in a circle. Dārat un is the tribal encampment known in North Africa as the duwwār . From the earliest times there has been in Muslim dwellings a tendency to arrange around a central space: the park, where the shepherd’s flock will be sheltered from the blows of enemies; the courtyard, where the non-nomadic family will live cut off from inquisitive strangers. The first house which Islam, in its infancy, offers for our consideration, is that built by Muḥammad, on his arrival in Medina, as a dwelling place for himself and his family, and as a meeting place …

, a Persian word meaning “door” or “gate”, found in many Iranian and Turkic languages. It is synonymous with Arabic …

[see ad̲h̲riʿāt ].

This is the name both of a river of south Morocco which rises on the southern slope of the High Atlas and flows into the Atlantic south of the D̲j̲ebel Bānī, and of a Moroccan province which stretches along the two cultivated banks of this water-course from Agdz as far as the elbow of the river Darʿa, for a distance of about 120 miles in a generally north-west to south-east direction. This province is traditionally divided into eight districts corresponding with the wider parts of the valley which are separated by mountain barriers forming narrows. From north to so…

(modern Dārāb), a t own in the province of Fārs in the district of Fasā, situated 280 kilometres east of S̲h̲īrāz at an altitude of 1188 metres and with a population of 6,400 people (1950). In Iranian legend the foundation of this town is ascribed to Dārāb, father of Dārā (Darius III Codomannus). The Sāsānīd ruler Ardashīr rose to power by revolt from his post as military commander at Dārābd̲j̲ird. The stone-strewn remains of the Sāsānid town lie 8 kilometres south-west of the modern village. Th…

, a vase-shaped drum, the wider aperture being covered by a membrane, with the lower aperture open. The body is usually of painted or incised earthenware, but carved and inlaid wood, as well as engraved metal are also used. In performance it is carried under the arm horizontally and played with the fingers. The name has regional variants: darābukka (or ḍarābukka ), dirbakki and darbūka . Dozy and Brockelmann derive the word from the Syriac ardabkā , but the Persian dunbak is the more likely, although the lexicographers mistakenly dub the latter a bagpipe. The name darabukka …

, Persian forms (adopted by Arab writers) of the name of the Achaemenian king familiarly known under the hellenized form Dareios (Darius). Dārāb, and its abbreviation Dārā, are directly derived from the ancient Persian Darayahvahav-(Bartholomae, Altiranisches Wörterbuch , 738; the different grammatical cases attested by Persian inscriptions, in Tolman, Ancient Persian Lexicon and Texts , 1908, s.v. darayavau ; for the ancient historians of these kings, Gr. I. Ph., ii, index, s.v. Dareios). The sources of information about these princes collected by Arab and Persian w…

, “the Land of the Covenant”, was considered as a temporary and often intermediate territory between the Dār al-Islām [ q.v.] and the Dār al-Ḥarb [ q.v.] by some Muslim jurists (see Al-S̲h̲āfiʿī, Kitāb al-Umm , Cairo 1321, iv, 103-104; Yaḥyā b. Ādam, …

(A.), ḍamān al-darak , in Islamic law the guarantee against a fault in ownership. As the most important of the various guarantees aimed at protecting the new legal status brought about by the conclusion of a contract of sale, the ḍamān al-darak ensures that the seller will make good should the buyer’s title be contested by a third party. It is possible, for instance, that prior to the…

, Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. ʿUmar b. Aḥmad b. Mahdī b. Masʿūd b. al-Nuʿmān b. Dīnār b. ʿAbdallāh , was born in Dār al-Ḳuṭn, a large quarter of Baghdad, whence he got his nisba , in 306/918. He was a man of wide learning who studied under many scholars. His studies included the various branches of Ḥadīt̲h̲ learning, the recitation of the Ḳurʾān, fiḳh and belles-lettres. He is said to have known by heart the dīwāns of a number of poets, and because of his knowing the dīwān of al-Sayyid al-Ḥimyarī he was accused of being a S̲h̲īʿī. His learning was so wide that many people felt there was no one like him. His biographers speak in fulsome terms of him. For example, al-K̲h̲aṭīb al-Bag̲h̲dādī calls him “the …

(deren) [see the article atlas ].

, eldest son of S̲h̲āh D̲j̲ahān and Mumtāz Maḥall, was born near Ad̲j̲mēr on 19 Ṣafar 1024/20 March 1615. He received his first manṣab [ q.v.] of 12,000 d̲h̲āt /6000 sawār in 1042/1633, as also the d̲j̲āgīr of Ḥisār-Fīrūza, regarded as the appendage of the heir-apparent. The same year he was given the nominal command of an army despatched to defend Ḳandahār which was threatened by the Persians, and again in 105 2/1642 when the threat was ¶ renewed. The attack, however, did not materialize. In 1055/1645, he was given the governorship of the ṣūba of Ilahābād to which were added the ṣūbas …

, Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl , was one of a circle of men who founded the Druze religion [see durūz ]. He was not an Arab, and is called Nas̲h̲takīn in the Druze scriptures; according to Nuwayrī (who calls him Anūs̲h̲takīn), he was part Turkish and came from Buk̲h̲ārā. He is said to have come to Egypt in 407 or 408/1017-18 and to have been an Ismāʿīlī dāʿī [see dāʿī and ismāʿīliyya ], in high favour with the Caliph al-Ḥākim, allegedly to the point that high officials had to seek his good graces. He may have held a post in the mint (Ḥamza accuses him of malpractices with coinage). He is said to have been the …

[see madīna ].

[see dār al-Ḍarb and sikka ].

[see derbend ].

, one of the principal routes linking bilād al-Sūdān with the north, obtained its name from the forty days’ travelling-time required to traverse it. W. G. Browne, the only European to have gone the whole way (in 1793) took 58 days from Asyūṭ to “Sweini” (al-Suwayna) near the southern terminus. Muḥammad ʿUmar al-Tūnusī in 1803 covered the same distance in 60 days. Starting from Asyūṭ, the route ran to the K̲h̲ārd̲j̲a oasis, an outpost of Ottoman Egypt. Thence it proceded across the …

, the Arab name for Casablanca, the principal city in Morocco. In Arab dialect Dār l-Bēḍa, formerly Anfā [ q.v.]. After the Portuguese had destroyed Anfā in the 15th century, the town remained in ruins, sheltering but a few Bedouins and being o…

[see dār al-ḍarb ].

[see darabukka ].

, the pilgrim highway running from al-ʿIrāḳ to the Holy Cities of the Ḥid̲j̲āz, named after Zubayda bint D̲j̲aʿfar [ q.v.], the wife of Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd. The main section of the Darb Zubayda, from Kūfa to Mecca, is something over 1,400 km. in length. The branch to Medina leaves the main road at Maʿdin al-Naḳira, which is also the point at which the road from Baṣra joins it. From Maʿdin al-Naḳira to Mecca the distance is about 500 km., and from the same point to Medina it is about 250 km. Between Maʿdin al-Naḳira and Mec…

, one of the four pillars of Urdū literature and one of the greatest of Urdū poets, K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Mīr (with the tak̲h̲alluṣ of Dard) b. K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Muḥammad Nāṣir “ʿAndalīb” al-Ḥusaynī al-Buk̲h̲ārī al-Dihlawī, claimed descent from K̲h̲wādia Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naḳs̲h̲band and in the 25th step from the Imām Haṣan al-ʿAskarī [ q.v.]. Born in 1133/1720-21 in the decadent Imperial Dihlī, Dard received his education at home, mostly from his father, a very well-read man and the author of Nāla-i ʿAndalīb , a voluminous Persian allegory dealing with metaphysical and a…

[see čanaḳ ḳalʿe bog̲h̲azi̊ ].

, the mint, was an indispensable institution in the life of mediaeval Middle Eastern society because of the highly developed monetary character of its economy, particularly during the early centuries of Muslim domination. The primary function of the mint was to supply coins for the needs of government and of the general public. At times of monetary reforms the mints served also as a place where obliterated coins could be exchanged for the new issues. The large quantities of precious metals which were stored in the mints helped to make them serve as ancillary treasuries. Soon after their conquest of the Middle East, the Arabs made use of the mints inherited from the former Byzantine and Sāsānid regimes. It was only during the Umayyad period that the Muslim administration began to interfere with the minting organization. This was manifested in the setting up of new mints (…

, the description now generally applied to a number of what are in many respects very archaic languages and dialects, spoken in the mountainous N.W. corner of the Indo-Aryan (IA) linguistic area, in Afg̲h̲ānistān, Pākistān and Kas̲h̲mīr. With the exception of Kas̲h̲mīrī, they are numerically insignificant, and have no written history. The others are known only from vocabularies and grammatical sketches, etc., the oldest dating from about 1830. There is still a great lack of adequate grammars, vocabularies, and collections of texts. ¶ In the following account there is a departu…

, name of the Egyptian branch of the K̲h̲alwatiyya [ q.v.] order. See also ṭarīḳa . ¶

, the name given to the area, lying between the Hindū Kus̲h̲ and Kāg̲h̲ān, between lat. 37° N. and long. 73° E., and lat. 35° N. and long. 74° 30ʹ E., the country of the Dardas of Hindū mythology. In the narrowest sense it embraces the S̲h̲inā-speaking territories, i.e., Gilgit, Astor, Gurayz, Čilās, Hōdur, Darēl, Tangir etc., or what is now known as Yāg̲h̲istān. In a wider sense the feudatory states of Hunza, Nāgar and Chitrāl [ q.v.] (including the part known as Yāsīn), now forming the northern regions of Pakistan, comprise Dardistān; in the widest sense parts of what …

Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Saʿīd b. Sulaymān b. ʿAlī b. Īk̲h̲laf , an Ibāḍi jurist, poet and historian of the 7th/13th century, author of a historical and biographical work on the Ibāḍīs, the Kitāb Ṭabaḳāt al-Mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲ . He belonged to …

, capital of the British administered United Nations Trusteeship Territory of Tanganyika, formerly German East Africa, lies in Lat. 6° 49ʹ S. and Long. 39° 16ʹ E. The settlement of ¶ Mzizima (Swahili: the healthy town) was first made in the 17th century A.D. by Wabarawa, of mixed Arab-Swahili stock from Barawa, south of Mogadishu. The present name…

[see d̲j̲āmiʿa ].

, “the land of the Fūr”, a province of the Republic of the Sudan, formerly a Muslim sultanate. Geography and inhabitants. Dār Fūr was one of the chain of Muslim states composing bilād al-Sūdān . Its eastern neighbour was Kordofān, from which it was separated by a tract of sand-hills. To the west lay Waddāī. The Libyan desert formed a natural boundary on the north, while the marshes of the Baḥr al-G̲h̲azāl [ …

, Pers., lit. “place of a door” [see dar ], usually “royal court, palace” in Persia, but in India with the additional specialized sense “tomb or shrine of a pīr ”.

name of a Muslim Ibero-Caucasian people in Dāg̲h̲istān formerly inhabiting the pre-Caspian plains and then, in the 12th century, driven back towards the mountains by the Ḳumi̊ḳs who had come from the North. Th…

I. Architecture. The first dār al-ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.] founded by Nūr al-Dīn in Damascus served as a prototype for similar ¶ establishments set up in Syria, ʿIrāḳ, Egypt and Palestine during the Zangid, Ayyūbid and Mamlūk periods. Unfortunately, this particular building is now virtually a ruin. The façade is completely disfigured by little shops built on the site of the rooms situated to the north of the courtyard. Of the building as a whole, some traces still exist: the walls of a prayer room with some vestiges of the miḥrāb decoration; the façade of this prayer r…

I. Architecture [see supplement]. II. Historical development. The name Dār al-ḥadit̲h̲ was first applied to institutions reserved for the teaching of ḥadīt̲h̲s in the sixth century of the Hid̲j̲ra. The conclusion that until that time ḥadīt̲h̲s were learned through the journeys called ṭalab al-ʿilm , there being no special schools for the science of ḥadīt̲h̲ (cf. Goldziher, Muh . Stud…

(‘the Land of War’). This conventional formula derived from the logical development of the idea of the d̲j̲ihād [ q.v.] when it ceased to be the struggle for survival of a small community, becoming instead the basis of the “law of nations” in the Muslim State. The Ḳurʾān, in its latest texts on the holy war, IX,…

…

, a Persian word meaning “court (language)” from dar [ q.v.]. In Arabic authors such as al-Maḳdisī (335), Yāḳūt (iii, 925), and Fihrist (19), we find the Darī language (also Fārsī Darī ) described as the ¶ spoken and written language of the (Sasanian) court. It was also the language of government and literature. After three centuries of Muslim rule in Persia it was written down in the Arabic script, and came to be called Fārsī or New Persian. The fact that New Persian literature arose and flourished in K̲h̲urāsān and Transoxiana because of politic…

Persian “the iron gate”, also called Derbend-i Āhanīn. The Arabic form is Bāb al-Ḥadīd , old Turkish Tämir qapiy. A name used for various passes in the eastern Islamic world. The most famous pass called dar-i āhanīn , is the pass in Mā warāʾ al-Nahr (Transoxiana), in the Baysuntau Mountain Range near the modern village of Derbent located on the old road between Samarḳand and Tirmid̲h̲. Perhaps the earliest mention of this “Iron Gate” is in the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsüan Tsang who went through the pass about 630 A.D. and described it briefly. The first mention of this ¶ pass under its …

(1)—(6): See Vol. II, 142-58.…

, one of the words most generally used to denote a tax, applied in particular to the whole category of taxes which in practice were added to the basic taxes of canonical theory. These latter ( zakāt or ʿus̲h̲r , d̲j̲izya and k̲h̲arād̲j̲ , etc.) and their yield in the “classical” period, have been covered in a general survey in an earlier article, Bayt al-māl , and a detailed description of the methodes of assessment and collection will be given under their respective titles, in particular under k̲h̲arād̲j̲; along with k̲h̲arād̲j̲ and zakāt will be included associated taxes and payments…

, “house of science”, the name given to several libraries or scientific institutes established in eastern Islam in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries. After the disappearance of al-Maʾmūn’s Bayt al-Ḥikma [ q.v.], a man of letters called ʿAlī b. Yaḥyā al-Munad̲j̲d̲j̲im (d. 275/888), friend of al-Mutawakkil and, later, al-Muʿtamid, built a library at his own expense in his residence at Karkar, near Bag̲h̲dād. It was called K̲h̲izānat al-Kutub , and was open to scholars of all countries (Yāḳūt, Irs̲h̲ād , v, 459, 467). Another writer and poet, the S̲h̲āfiʿī faḳīh D̲j̲aʿfar b. Muḥammad b. Ḥamdān al-Mawṣilī (d. 323/934), founded the institute named Dār al-ʿilm at Mosul; it was also equipped with a library open to everyone (Yāḳūt, Irs̲h̲ād…

[see tamīm ]. ¶

, ʿAbdallāh b. ʿAbd al-Raḥman b. al-Faḍl b. Bahrām b. ʿAbd al-Ṣamad Abū Muḥammad al-Samarḳandī belonged to the B. Dārim b. Mālik, a branch of Tamīm. He travelled in search of traditions and learned them from a number of authorities in al-ʿIrāḳ, Syria and Egypt. Among those who transmitted traditions on his authority were Muslim b. al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲āj and Abū ʿĪsā al-Tirmid̲h̲ī. Al-Dārimī lived a simple, pious life devoted to study, and acquired a reputation for knowledge of Ḥadīt̲h̲ , reliability, truthfulness and sound judgement. He was asked to accept office as ḳāḍī …

, Muṣṭafā , Turkish author of the 7th/14th century. Very little is known of his life. He was born blind ( ḍarīr ) in Erzurum where he studied; later he travelled in Egypt, Syria and Karaman. His works which have come down to us are: 1. Tard̲j̲umat al-Ḍarīr , an enlarged free translation, interspersed with many original verse passages, of Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-Bakrī al-Baṣrī’s (6th/13th century) version of the sīra of Ibn Isḥāk, filled with stories and legends borrowed from various sources. It consists of five volumes and was written by the order o…

, ʿthe Land of Islam’ or, more simply, in Muslim authors, dārunā , ‘our Country’ is the whole territory in which the law of Islam prevails. Its unity resides in the community of the faith, the unity of the law, and the guarantees assured to members of the umma [ q.v.]. The umma, established in consequence of the final revelation, also guarantees the faith, the persons, possessions and religious organization, albeit on a lower level, of d̲h̲immīs , the followers of the creeds of Christianity and Judaism which sprang from earlier revelations, and of the Zoroastrians ( Mad̲j̲ūs ) [cf. d̲h̲imma , d̲…

, a village and a watering place in Nad̲j̲d located at 42° 56′ N., 24° 46′ E., on the Darb al-Sulṭānī pilgrim route from al-Baṣra to Mecca ( Handbook , ii, 189). The village was a much frequented halting place for pilgrims, for the junction with the route from al-Baḥrayn was here. The district of Ḍariyya, according to Ibn Bulayhid, was a wide territory in Nad̲j̲d celebrated by the poets in pre-Islamic times for its sweet water and pasturage. The famous Ḥimā Ḍariyya is said to have been named after the village and was part of the district (Yāḳūt, iii, 457). There is some doubt as to when the ḥimā …

[see al-dirʿiyya ]

…

The Egyptian State Archives, consisting of the administrative records of the governments of Egypt from the start of the sixteenth century until the present time, and stored at the Citadel and in the Abdine Palace in Cairo. The extant archives of the Ottoman treasury and administration in Egypt from the time of its conquest by Selīm I in 922/1517 until it became autonomous under Muḥammad ʿAlī at the start of the nineteenth century are located at the Citadel ( al-Ḳalʿa ) archives, which were built by Muḥammad ʿAlī in 1242/1827 to store the materials remaining after a disasterous fire in 1235/1820. A very few late-Mamlūk documents and registers, less important nineteenth-…

[see dār al-ʿulūm (d.)].

, in modern pronunciation Derna, a town on the northern coast of Cyrenaica which is to-day the second most important in the region after Beng̲h̲āzī. It is situated in a little plain along the banks of a …

, a kind of town hall in Mecca in the time of Muḥammad. The building was to the north of the Kaʿba, on the other side of the square in which the ṭawāf took place. It was the gathering place of the nobles ( malaʾ ). The Dār al-Nadwa is said to have been built by Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.], who is taken to be the ancestor of the Ḳurays̲h̲ and founder of the Kaʿba. He bequeathed it to ʿAbd al-Dār and then to ʿAbd Manāf and his son Hās̲h̲im and Hās̲h̲im’s descendants.…

[see saray ].

, “Abode of Peace”, is in the first place a name of Paradise in the Ḳurʾān (vi, 127; x, 26), because, says Bayḍāwī, it is a place of security ( salāma ) from transitoriness and injury, or because God and the angels salute ( sallama ) those who enter it. Hence it was given to the city of Bag̲h̲dād by al-Manṣūr, as well as Madīnat al-Salām (cf. …

, also less correctly darsan, a Sanskrit word ( darśana , from the root dṛś “see”) meaning “showing, being visible”; hence, the ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects. This Hindū practice was adopted by the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī , i, 73) and his immediate successors. The English traveller Coryat records that Ḏj̲ahāngīr in Āgra used to present himself three times a day …

[see bīmāristān iii].

(also, but more rarely: Dār al-ṣanʿa ). Etymologically, this compound can be translated “industrial establishment, workshop”. In fact it is always applied to a State workshop: for example, under the Umayyads in Spain to establishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture and stock-piling of arms. But the sense most widely used is that of “establishment for the construction and equipment of warships”: dār ṣināʿa li-ins̲h̲āʾ al-sufun ; or simply dār al-ins̲h̲āʾ , which also occurs. This does not include the arsen…

, or Dārṣīnī (Persian dār čīnī “Chinese wood”) is the Chinese cinnamon ( Cinnamomum cassia ), next to the Ceylonese cinnamon ( Cinn. zeylanicum ) the most valuable spice from plants of the cinnamon species, of the family of the Lauraceae, perhaps the oldest spice altogether. The rind of the branch of the cinnamon-tree was used in China as medicine, aromatic substance and spice already in the 3rd millennium B.C., and reached the Near East and the ¶ Mediterranean countries in the 2nd millennium. It cannot be established with certainty with what original plant dārṣīnī …

‘the House of Truce’, territories not conquered by Muslim troops but by buying peace by the giving of tribute, the payment of which guarantees a truce or armistice ( hudna , ṣulḥ ). The two historic examples of such a situation, which were evidently the starting-point for the whole theory, are Nad̲j̲rān and Nubia. Muḥammad himself concluded a treaty with the Christian population of Nad̲j̲rān, guaranteeing their security and imposing on them certain obligations which were later looked on as k̲h̲arād̲j̲ [ q.v.] by some, and as d̲j̲izya [ q.v.] by others (for the whole question see Bal…

[see ik̲h̲tilāf ].

[see maṭbaʿa ].

[see Ṭirāz ].

The word is derived from the Mongol daru-, ‘to press, to seal’ and was used to denote a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy (K. H. Menges, Glossar zu den Volkskundlichen Texten aus Ost. Turkistan , ii, Wiesbaden 1955, 714 s.v. dor γ a; B. Vladimirtsov, Le régime social des Mongols , Paris 1948, 181, 209, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’or , Paris 1950,73). In 617-8/1221 there was a Mongol dārūk̲h̲ačī , or representative of the head of the empire, in Almālīg̲h̲ beside the native ruler. The duties laid upon him included the making of a census of the inhabitants, the recruitment of local troops, the establishment of postal communications, the collection of taxes, and the delivery of tribute to the court (W. Barthold, …

or the “House of Sciences”, (a) an establishment for higher instruction founded in 1872 by ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a Mubārak [ q.v.]. Its aim was to introduce a certain number of students of al-Azhar [ q.v.] to modern branches of learning by means ¶ of a five year course, in order to fit them for teaching in the new schools. In fact, as other centres were created in Cairo for the teaching of science, its curriculum was remodelled a number of times and the exact sciences were relegated to the background. The length of the course was reduced to four …

, the name of a coastal plain in Palestine, and later in particular the name of a famous fortress of the time of the Crusades, is to be found in the works of Arab authors with both these meanings. The Hebrew dārōm from which it is derived and to which it corresponds in the Arabic version of Deuteronomy, XXXIV, 3°, appeared in a few passages of the Old Testament for south as a cardinal point, or any country situated in the south (F. M. Abel), and …

, necessity (also iḍṭirār ), in works of fiḳh has a narrow meaning when it is used to denote what may be called the technical state of necessity, and a wider sense when authors use it to describe the necessities or demands of social and economic life, which the jurists had to take into account in their elaboration of the law which was otherwise independent of these factors. I. The state of necessity, whose effects recall those of violence, does not result from threats expressed by a person, but from certain factual circumstances which may oblige an individual, f…

( Darwēs̲h̲ ) is commonly explained as derived from Persian and meaning “seeking doors”, i.e., a mendicant (Vullers, Lexicon , i, 839a, 845b; Gr. I. Ph., i/1, 260; ii, 43, 45); but the variant form daryōs̲h̲ is against this, and the real etymology appears to be unknown. Broadly through Islam it is used in the sense of a member of a religious fraternity, but in Persian and Turkish more narrowly for a mendicant religious called in Arabic a faḳīr . In Morocco and Algeria for dervishes, in the broadest sense, the word most used is Ik̲h̲wān , “brethren”, pronounced k̲h̲uān . These fraternities ( ṭuruḳ …

, Deryā-beyi , sea-lord, a title given in the Ottoman Empire to certain officers of the fleet. In the 9th/15th century the term deryā-beyi or deñiz-beyi is sometimes used of the commandant of Gallipoli [see gelibolu ], who had the rank of Sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi, and was the naval commander-inchief until the emergence of the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. In the 10th/16th century the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a became, as well as an admiral, the governor of an eyālet , which consisted of a group of ports and islands [see d̲j̲azā’ir-i baḥr-i safīd ]. This province, like others, was divided into Sand̲j̲aḳs, the governors of which were called deryā-beyi instead of sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi . The deryā-beyis and the officers under them held appanages and fiefs like the feudal cavalry; they were required to serve with the fleet, and to suppty, equip, and man one, two, or three galleys, according to the importance of their sand̲j̲aḳs. Their fiefs were administered by the department called Deryā Ḳalemi , sea office, which also handled the mensūk̲h̲āt [ q.v.]. The deryā-beyis usually held their appointments for life, and transmitted th…

…

[see urmiya ]

, the Ḳi̊pčaḳ Steppe, was the Islamic name of the territory called Comania by Christian writers: the great plains of what is now Southern Russia and Western Kazakhstan. Both names were given while This region was still dominated by the Ḳi̊pčaḳ or Comans (the Das̲h̲t-i Ḳi̊pcāḳ is mentioned in the Dīwān of Nāṣir-i K̲h̲usraw, who died between 465/1072 and 470/1077): they were retained when it passed under the control of the Golden Horde [see batu’ids …

, name of four places in ʿIrāḳ, viz: 1. a town on the Diyālā N. E. of Bag̲h̲dād, 2. a. village in the district of Nahr al-Malik W. of Bag̲h̲dād, 3. a village near D̲j̲abbul, S. of Bag̲h̲dād, 4. a village in K̲h̲ūzistān (cf. Yāḳūt, ii, 575; …

, Arabicized form of the Persian Dastagard, the name of a number of towns in the Sasanian empire. See daskara .

[see Ḥamāsa ].

[see dustūr ].