Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

or bāʾ-i fārsī or bāʾ-i ʿad̲j̲amī , i.e. the bāʾ with three points subscript, invented for Persian as supplement to the Arabic bāʾ and to represent the unvoiced, as opposed to the voiced, bilabial plosive (for the voiced b, see bāʾ). It is sometimes interchangeable with bāʾ (e.g. asp and asb , dabīr and dapīr ) and, more frequently, with fāʾ (e.g. sapīd and safīd , Pārs and Fārs ). The regular use of the letter in manuscripts is comparatively modern, but it is found in good ones of the 7th/13th century while at the same time it is often omitted in manuscripts of much later date ( GIPh …

[see rūyān ].

(p.), the name for Muslim rulers, especially emperors. The Persian term pād-i s̲h̲āh , i.e. (according to M. Bittner, in E. Oberhummer, Die Türken und das Osmanische Reich , Leipzig 1917, 105) “lord who is a royalty” in which the root pad is connected with Sanskrit patis , lord, husband, fern, patni , Greek πότνια and δεσ-πότης, Lat. potens (G. Curtius, Griech . Etymol ., 377), was originally a title reserved exclusively for the sovereign, which in course of time and as a result of the long intercourse of the Ottomans with the states of…

, the name of a major Islamic revivalist movement in Minangkabau [ q.v.], Sumatra, 1803-38. The appellation Padri is derived from orang Pidari “men of Pedir (Pidië)”, in reference to those who made the pilgrimage to Mecca by way of the Atjèhnese port of Pidië. The Padri built on earlier Minangkabau reform movements initiated by the two major Ṣūfī tarekat which had been the instrument for converting the central highlands of Sumatra, the Naksyabandiyah (Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya [ q.v.]) and the Syattariyah (S̲h̲aṭṭāriyya [ q.v.]). Operating by the late 18th century in a society which wa…

[see malay peninsula ].

, Muḥammad b. Ilden̄iz , Nuṣrat al-Dīn , Atābeg of Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān in the later 6th/12th century. His father Ildeñiz [ q.v.] had in course of time risen to be the real ruler in the Sald̲j̲ūḳ empire; the widow of Sultan Ṭog̲h̲ri̊l [ q.v.] was Pahlawān’s mother and Arslān b. Ṭog̲h̲ri̊l [ q.v.] his step-brother. In the fighting between Ildeñiz and the lord of Marāg̲h̲a, Ibn Aḳsunḳur al-Aḥmadīlī, Pahlawān played a prominent part [see marāg̲h̲a ]. From his father he inherited in 568/1172-3 Arrān, Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān, al-D̲j̲ibāl, Hamad̲h̲ān, Iṣfahān and…

(p.), from Pahlaw , properly “Parthian”, ¶ acquired in pre-modern Persian and thence in Turkish, the sense of “wrestler, one who engages in hand-to-hand physical combat”, becoming subsequently a general term for “hero, warrior, champion in battle”. From this later, broader sense it is used as a personal name in the Persian world, e.g. for the Eldigüzid Atabeg [see ilden̄izids ] Nuṣrat al-Dīn D̲j̲ahān-Pahlawān (reigned in ʿĀd̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān. d. 581 or 582/1186 [see pahlawān , muḥammad b. ilden̄iz ; and see Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch, 237, for other bearers of this name]. The w…

, the name of the short lived dynasty which ruled in Persia from 1925 to 1979. Its two members were Riḍā S̲h̲āh (r. 1925-41) and his son Muḥammad Riḍā S̲h̲āh (r. 1941-79) [ q.vv.].

(Hindi “quarter”), English form “pie”, the smallest copper coin of British India = 1/12 of an anna. Originally, in the East India Company’s early experiments for a copper coinage, the pie, as its name implies, was the quarter of an anna or pice [see paysā ]; after the Acts of 1835, 1844 and 1870, however, the pie was ⅓ of a pice. (J. Allan) Bibliography Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson, a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases 2, 705. ¶

[see paysā ].

(Muḥammad Ayyūb), a noted leader of northwestern Chinese Muslim rebellions against the Ch’ing-Manchu rule during the 1860s and 1870s. A native of Ching-Yang in Shensi province, he was born in 1841 into a traditional ahung family. In 1862 he joined the Muslim rebels in Shensi province, his military skills and family background making him one of eigthteen rebel leaders. After most of these had defected to or been killed by the Imperial troops, Pai assumed overall leadership of the anti-Manchu campaigns. When …

, the Islamic Republic of Pākistān or Islām-i D̲j̲umhūriyya-yi Pākistān is bounded by Iran, Afg̲h̲ānistān, the former Soviet Union, China, India and the Arabian Sea. It covers an area of 706,495 km2 and has a population of 114,071,000 (1990 estimate which includes the population of the disputed state of D̲j̲ammū and Kas̲h̲mir as well as Afg̲h̲ān refugees). The country is divided into four distinct physical regions. In the north, sections of the Himalayan and Karakoram ranges reach an average of more than 6,100 m/20,000 ft. an…

, a taḥṣīl in the Montgomery district of the Pand̲j̲āb in Pākistān, famous for its association with S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd-al-Dīn Masʿūd Gand̲j̲-i S̲h̲akar [ q.v.]. It was founded by a prince of the Yaudhaya tribe and was named Ad̲j̲odhan. It appears from Greek accounts that the place existed at the time of Alexander’s invasion. When S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd settled ¶ there, it was a deserted town, having forests full of ferocious beasts and reptiles. Gradually, it became a great centre of spiritual culture and people from far and near were attracted to the d̲j̲amāʿat-k̲h̲āna …

(p.), Ottoman Turkish form pālāheng , literally “string, rope, halter, cord”, is applied to the belt worn around the waist by dervishes, especially the Bektās̲h̲īs [see bektās̲h̲iyya ], and on which is fixed a disc of stone (of jasper, found near the tomb of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Bektās̲h̲ at Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Bektās̲h̲ Köy in Anatolia, of crystal or of translucent stone from Nad̲j̲af in ʿIrāḳ) with twelve flutings at the edge; these are said by the Bektās̲h̲īs to symbolise the Twelve ¶ Imāms , the Twelve Disciples of Jesus or even the Twelve Tribes of Israel (see J.K. Birge, The Bektashi order of dervishes, …

(“place of refuge”), the name of what is now a District in the Bihār State of the Indian Union. It straddles the plateau region of Čhot́ a Nāgpur. It was also the name of two fortresses which were built by the Rādjput Čero Rād̲j̲ās of Palamāw, which were attacked in the middle decades of the 11th/17th century by the Mug̲h̲al commander Dāwūd K̲h̲ān Ḳurays̲h̲ī, who made the Rād̲j̲ās tributary and erected several fine Islamic buildings at Palamāw. In the early years of the 20th century, Muslims constituted 8% of the population of the District. (Ed.) Bibliography Imperial gazetteer of India 2, xix…

, a former, Muslim-ruled princely state of India, now in Gujarat State of the Indian Union but in British Indian times included in the Western India States Agency. The territory incorporated in this agency included the area formerly known as Kāthiāwār together with the Cutch and Pālanpūr agencies. Its creation in October 1924 marked the end of the political control of the Government of Bombay and the beginning of direct relations with the Government of India. The old Pālanpūr Agency with its headquarters at the town of Pālanpūr was a group of states in Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.] lying between 23° …

, the capital city of the province of Sumatera Selatan (South Sumatra) in Indonesia, situated on the shores of the Musi river. It lies in long. 104° 45′ E. and lat. 2° 59′ S., and has a population of ca. 790,000 (1990), of whom some 85% are Muslims. The area of Palembang, united with neighbouring Malayu (Jambi), was the centre of the (Mahayana-) Buddhist empire of Sri Vid̲j̲aya (4th-14th centuries A.D.), renowned especially in the 8th-10th centuries for its famous study centres for Buddhism and Sanskrit. After the 11th century, tantric Kāla-Č…

, the name (of unknown etymology) of a mountain massif of Inner Asia. Its core is in the modern Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous oblast of the former USSR, but it spills over into Kirghizia and Tadjikistan to the north and west, and into the Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Region of China to the east, and Afg̲h̲ānistān (including the Wak̲h̲ān corridor) and Pākistānī Kas̲h̲mir (Āzād Kas̲h̲mīr) to the south. Comprised mainly of east-west-running ranges, its many river valleys being right-bank affluents of t…

, an ideology advocating an overall union of Arabs ( waḥdat al-ʿArab , al-waḥda al-ʿArabiyya ). Ideologues of Pan-Arabism have consistently recommended such union on the basis of several elements of commonality: (a) Language and culture, considered the ultimate expression of the entire Arab nation and one of its major links with the ¶ past (including the Islamic past; many Arabs have expressed their nationalism in Islamic terms), (b) History, preoccupation with which afforded immersion in a common past glory differing from the 20th century situati…

(p., “land of the five rivers”), a province of the northwestern part of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. In pre-Partition British India it comprised all that part of the Indian Empire, with the exceptions of the North West Frontier Province and Kas̲h̲mīr, north of Sindh and Rād̲j̲pūtāna and west of the river D̲j̲amna. Geographically therefore it includes more than its name implies, for, in addition to the country watered by the D̲j̲helum, Čināb, Rāwī, Beās, and Satled̲j̲, it embraces the table-la…

is only loosely to be defined as the ¶ Indo-Aryan language of the Pand̲j̲āb [ q.v.]. Most linguists follow the narrower definition proposed by Grierson in the Linguistic survey of India, according to which “Pand̲j̲ābī proper” is restricted to the speech of the central and eastern districts only, in distinction from the western dialects separately classified under Lahndā [ q.v.]. 1. Historic status and dialects. Pand̲j̲ābī is thus placed between Lahndā to the west and the Khaŕī bōlī of the Dihlī region, which forms the base of Urdū and of modern standard Hind…

( Pend̲j̲deh ), a village now in the Turkmenistan Republic, situated to the east of the Kus̲h̲k river near its junction with the Murg̲h̲āb at Pul-i Kis̲h̲ti. The fact that the inhabitants of this area, the Sarik Turkomans, were divided into five sections, the Soktīs, Harzagīs, K̲h̲urāsānlis, Bayrač, and the ʿAlī S̲h̲āh. has been put forward as a possible explanation of the origin of the name Pend̲j̲deh, but it carries no weight as the Sariks were only 19th-century immigrants, whereas the name was in use in the 15th century. This obscure oasis owes a somewhat melancholy importance to…

, the name of a river and its valley in the northeastern part of Afg̲h̲ānistān. The river flows southwards from the Hindū Kus̲h̲ [ q.v.] and joins the Kābul River at Sarobi, and near this point a barrage was constructed in the 1950s to supply water for Kābul. The Pand̲j̲hīr valley has always been important as a corridor for nomads who winter in the Lāmg̲h̲ānāt-D̲j̲alālābād [ q.vv.] regions and then travel to summer pastures in Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān [ q.v.]. In mediaeval Islamic times, Pand̲j̲hīr was a famed centre for silver mining [see maʿdin at V, 964, 967, 968 for details], and coins were…

, Pačpiriyā , followers of the Five Saints, Urdu pānč pīr , especially in northern and eastern India, whose myths and legends (there is no real historicity or hagiology about them) are attached to a primitive form of shrine worship with as many Hindū as Muslim adherents (Kipling in Kim , ch. 4, speaks of the “wayside shrines—sometimes Hindu, sometimes Mussulman—which the low caste of both creeds share with beautiful impartiality”. For “caste” among the lower grades of Muslim society see hind. ii, Ethnography). They have no formal organisation, and belong to the general north…

[see Ḳandahār ].

, a mediaeval Islamic town of the Bengal Sultanate [see bangāla ], now in the Mālda District of the West Bengal State of the Indian Union, and situated about 16 km/10 miles to the south of modern Mālda town, in lat. 25° 8′ N. and long 88° 10′ E. It was the residence of S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Ilyās S̲h̲āh of Bengal (746-59/1345-58) and his five successors, and it was at Pānd́uʾā that he mounted the throne. Pānd́uʾā continued as the capital of the Bengal Sultanate till the reign of D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Muḥammad S̲h̲āh (817-35/1414-31), who transferred the capital to Gawr or Lakhnawtī [ q.v.]. On coins, Pānd́uʾ…

[see penghulu ].

, a town of northern India (lat. 29° 24′ N., long. 76° 58′ E.) situated 86 km/57 miles north of Dihlī; it is also the name of the southernmost taḥṣīl in the Karnāl District of what was in British Indian times the province of the Pand̲j̲āb [ q.v.] but has since 1947 been in the eastern or Indian part of the divided province of the former Pand̲j̲āb, at present in Haryana province of the Indian Union. On three occasions has the fate of Hindustān been decided on the plain of Pānīpat: in 1526, when Bābur ¶ [ q.v.], the Barlās Turk, defeated Ibrāhīm Lōdī [ q.v.]; in 1556, when Akbar [ q.v.] crushed the forces …

(in Arabic al-Waḥda al-Islāmiyya ; in Ottoman Turkish Ittiḥād-i̊ Islām , in modern Turkish İslam ittihadi ), the ideology aiming at a comprehensive union of all Muslims into one entity, thus restoring the situation prevalent in early Islam. The religious element of the unity of all Muslims had been advocated since the days of Muḥammad, but acquired an added political significance in the 19th century. The Turkish term was used politically by Turkish writers and journalists since the 1860s, …

[see Ḳawsara ]. ¶

, a term applied to the Chinese Muslims of Yunnan and their rebellion in the 19th century. In the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Muslims in Yunnan province (in south-west China, bordered by Burma, Thalland and Vietnam) were known to the Europeans as Pant̲h̲ay , a term which had never been used anywhere in China. The Yunnanese Muslims were known as Huei-Huei up to 1949, when the incoming communist government referred to them as Huei-Min or Huei-Tsu . Views differ as to the etymology of the term Pant̲h̲ay. If it derives from Chinese, it may have meant indigenous ( Pen-ti …

, one of the Pan-ideologies originating in the late 19th century. It expresses strong nationalist interest in the welfare of all Turks and members of Turkic groups, recognisable by kindred languages and a common origin, history and tradition. It addresses itself chiefly to those in Turkey, Cyprus, the Balkans, the former Soviet Union, Syria, ʿIrāḳ, Persia, Afg̲h̲ānistān and East Turkistan (or Sinkiang). Pan-Turkism should be distinguished from Turanism (sometimes called Pan-Turanism), a broader …

, a term of Greek origin, πάπυρος, is one of the world’s oldest writing materials; it seems to have been used in Egypt, the land of its provenance, since the 6th dynasty, ca. 2470-2270 A.D. As an equivalent for this word the Arabs, after their conquest of this country, used bardī , abardī , or better still waraḳ al-bardī . However, these expressions were not of widespread usage, and in Egypt the term employed was fāfīr , corresponding more closely to the original Greek. Elsewhere, the word ḳirṭās was also used, derived from the Greek χάρτης through the intermediary of the Aramaic ḳarṭīs …

(p. ‘‘piece, fragment”), a Turkish coin of the Ottoman and early Republican periods. It was originally a silver piece of 4 aḳčes , first issued early in the 18th century; it soon replaced the aḳče as the monetary unit. The weight, originally 16 grains (1.10 grammes), sank to one-quarter of this weight by the beginning of the 19th century and the silver content also depreciated considerably. The multiples of the silver pāra were 5 ( bes̲h̲lik ) pāras ; 10 ( onli̊ḳ ); 15 ( onbes̲h̲lik ); 20 ( yigirmiparali̊ḳ ); 30 ( zolota ) and 40 ( g̲h̲urūs̲h̲ or piastre). Higher denominations: 60 ( altmi̊s̲h̲li̊ḳ …

(Gk. Paros ), Turkish name of an important Aegean Cycladic island, west of Naḳs̲h̲e and north-east of the once-attached Antiparos (1981 pop.: 8,516), celebrated since Antiquity for its marble, still popular in the 15th century according to the Italian travellers Buondelmonti (ed. Legrand, 53 ff.) and Cyriacus of Ancona (cf. Miller-Lampros [ = M-L], ii, 380, 397), and rich in Byzantine, post-Byzantine and Catholic (Capuchin) monuments. The Byzantine period (to 1207) saw the island’s incorporation in the Aegean maritime theme after ca. 843 (see Malamut, Les îles …

(p.), a technique of inlaywork used in the architecture of the Indo-Pākistān subcontinent, in Urdu paččī-kārī . It is usually set in marble in a technique which reached its fullest development in Hindustan under D̲j̲ahāngīr and S̲h̲āh-D̲j̲ahān in the 11th/17th century, by then as an essential element in imperial symbolism. The craft of using semi-precious stones in floral or foliate compositions in the equivalent of the Florentine commesso di pietre dure appears to have arisen from a long regional tradition of stone intarsia work with a stimulus from imported Flor…

(p.), literally “the person who draws the curtain”, a term used among the dynasties of the eastern Islamic world from the Sald̲j̲ūḳ period onwards as the equivalent of Arabic ḥād̲j̲ib , i.e. for the court official, the chamberlain, who controlled access to the ruler, the latter being normally veiled from public gaze.. For this function, see Ḥād̲j̲ib . (Ed.)

, a small town and fortress, formerly in the native state of Ḥaydarābād, now in the S̲h̲olapur District of Maharas̲h̲tra State of the Indian Union (lat. 18° 16′ N., long 75° 27′ E.) The fortress is attributed, like many of those in the Deccan, to the Bahmanī minister Maḥmūd Gāwān [ q.v.], i.e. to the third quarter of the 9th/15th century, but may well be earlier [see burd̲j̲. III. at vol. I, 1323b]. Parendā was for a short time the capital of the Niẓām S̲h̲āhīs [ q.v.] after the capture of Aḥmadnagar [ q.v.] by Akbar’s forces in 1014/1605, but was conquered by Awrangzīb when he was gove…

, a Hindi word, ultimately from a Sanskrit root “to compute, reckon up”, a term in Indo-Muslim administrative usage denoting an aggregate of villages, a subdivision of a district or sarkār [see mug̲h̲als. 3. Administrative and social organisation]. In later Anglo-Indian usage, the term was often rendered as pergunnah , see Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson , a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases, 698-9. The first reference to this term in the chronicles of the Sultanate of Dihlī appears to be in the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Fīrūz S̲h̲āhī of S̲h̲ams-i Sirād̲j̲ ʿAfīf ( Bibliotheca Ind…

(p., t. peri , borrowed into English as peri, French péri ), a supernatural being of stories and legends, and likewise forming a whole category of popular beliefs. The word stems from Pers. par “wing”; and the being is sometimes pictured as being winged. Turkish tradition considers it as a beneficent spirit. However, amongst the Kazaks it is sometimes represented as an evil genie. In the Anatolian tradition, it is conceived as a being belonging to both sexes, and the compound form peri kizi “girl peri” is used for peris of the female sex. It was believed …

(the word arose from such Latin accountancy terms as paria facere “to settle an account” already current in Imperial Latin; Du Cange considered Mediaeval Latin pariae as from the Spanish) in the mediaeval Iberian peninsula “tribute paid by one ruler to another in recognition of his superior status”. The term is rarely used except of tribute paid by Muslims to Christians. There was no universally recognised tariff for such payments, nor any set form of contract setting out what was received in exchange for the parias , although there clearly was a presumption…

, a sub-order of the Central Asian Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya [ q.v.] Ṣūfī ṭarīḳa and the most prominent s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ly family of Balk̲h̲ from the middle of the 9th/15th century. The eponymous founder of the line was K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Muḥammad b. Maḥmūd (or Muḥammad) al-Ḥāfiẓī al-Buk̲h̲ārī(d. 822/1419), who adopted the nickname Pārsā (“the devout”). His tomb in Medina became a shrine for Central Asian pilgrims and the burial place of at least one Central Asian grand k̲h̲ān, the Tuḳāy-Tīmūrid, Imām Ḳulī (r. 1020-51/1611-41). K̲h̲wād̲j̲a Muḥammad Pārsā’s son, Abū Naṣr, seems to have been the f…

(Pahlavi, pārsīk , np pārsī , lit. “inhabitants of Fārs”, “Persian”), the name given to those descendants of the Zoroastrians who migrated to India, mostly to Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.], from the 4th/10th century onwards [see mad̲j̲ūs ]. This movement is described in the Ḳiṣṣa-yi Sand̲j̲an , written in 1600 but using older oral tradition. In detail it is unlikely to be historically reliable but it probably has a valid overall perspective. It reflects the Pārsī conviction that their move to India was divinelyinspired and that they have been treated tolerantly by the Hindu majority. From the 17th …

, an Islamic-oriented political party of Malaysia. The Partai Islam Se Malaysia (formerly Malaya), or Pan Malaysian (Malayan) Islamic Party (PMIP), was formed in the 1950s. Its ideological origins lie in the Islamic reformist movement in Malaya at the beginning of the 20th century. A party began to take shape in the 1940s as the religious wing ( Hizbul Muslimin ) of the radical but essentially secular Malay Nationalist Party (MNP). In 1948 the Majlis Tertingi Agama (supreme religious council; its acronym, MATA, is the Malay word for…

[see farwān ].

[see muʿīn al-dīn sulaymān parwāna ] .

, “relater”, term used in Persian administration for the official who noted down the instructions for the promulgation of deeds, and who forwarded them to the chancery. ¶ The function is recorded for the first time under Tīmūr, and is then found among the Tīmūrids, the Ḳara Ḳoyunlu, the Aḳ Ḳoyunlu [ q.vv.] and in the early Ṣafawid period. According to K̲h̲wāndamīr. there were usually two relaters, one in charge of the Council for Army Inspection ( dīwān-i towāčī ), the other of the Council for Finances ( dīwān-i māl ) and of the administration of the Ṣadr ( sarkār-i ṣidārat ) [see Ṣadr ]. Only occ…

, celebrated female poet of Iran, was born on 16 March 1907 in Tabrīz. Her father, Yūsuf Iʿtiṣāmī (d. 2 January 1938), was a respected author known chiefly for his translations of French and Arabic works into Persian. He was also the founder and principal writer of the literary magazine Bahār , which appeared from April 1910 till November 1911 and again from April 1921 till December 1922. Parwīn received her early instruction in Persian and Arabic literature from her father. When she was still small, her father moved the fa…

, Sāsānid emperor 591-628, and the last great ruler of this dynasty before the invading Arabs overthrew the Persian empire. The MP name Parwīz “victorious” is explained in al-Ṭabarī, i, 995, 1065, as al-muẓaffar and al-manṣūr ; the ¶ name was Arabised as Abarwīz (see Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch , 19). For the main events of his long reign (dominated by the struggles with the Byzantines over the buffer-state Armenia and over control of the Fertile Crescent in general, culminating in the Persian invasion of Egypt in 619, but then the riposte by t…

[see pesantren ].

, the Ottoman Turkish form of the Yugoslavian town of Požarevac, better known in European history under its Germanic form Passarowitz. Požarevac is now a prosperous commercial town, situated in lat. 44°37′ N. and long. 21° 12′ E. some 60 km/40 miles to the southeast of Belgrade in the fertile plain of Serbia between Morava and Mlava, and only a short distance from the Danube port of Dubravica. The town, whose name is popularly connected with the Serbo-Croat word požar (“fire”) (M.D. Milićević, Kneževina Srbija , Belgrade 1876, 172, 1058), is first mentioned…

, the name of a district on the north coast of Atjeh [ q.v.] in Sumatra, which according to the prevalent local view stretches from the D̲j̲ambō-Ajé river in the east to the other side of the Pasè river in the west. The whole area is divided up into a number of little states each with an ulèïbalang or chief. Pasè at one time was a kingdom known throughout eastern Asia. The north coast of Atjeh was in the middle ages on the trade route by sea from Hindustān to China. Islam followed this route and firmly established itself from India on this coast, the fir…

(t., from the Pers. pādis̲h̲āh , probably influenced by Turkish basḳaḳ ), the highest official title of honour ( ʿunwān or laḳab ) in use in Turkey until the advent of the Republic and surviving for sometime after that in certain Muslim countries originally part of the Turkish empire (Egypt, ʿIrāḳ, Syria). It was always accompanied by the proper name, like the titles of nobility in Europe, but with this difference from the latter, that it was placed after the name (like the less important titles of bey and efendi ). In addition, being neither hereditary nor givi…

, a term of ¶ Ottoman administration denoting the building presented by Sultan Meḥemmed IV in 1064/1654 to the Grand Vizier Derwīs̲h̲ Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a and intended to serve both as an official residence and as an office; after the Tanẓīmāt [ q.v.] period it became known as the Bāb-i̊ ʿĀlī [ q.v.] or Sublime Porte, and soon came to house most of the administrative departments of the Dīwān-i̊ Hümāyūn [ q.v.]. (Ed.) Bibliography M.Z. Pakalin, Osmanli tarih deyimleri ve terimleri sözlügü, Istanbul 1946-54, ii, 757.

(t.), means 1. the office or title of a pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]; 2. the territory under the authority of a pas̲h̲a (in the provinces). After some of the governors called sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi (or mīr-liwā ) had been raised to the dignity of pas̲h̲a, their territories ( sand̲j̲aḳ or liwā [ q.vv.]) also received the name of pas̲h̲ali̊ḳ . Early in the 19th century, out of 158 sand̲j̲aḳs 70 were pas̲h̲ali̊ḳs . Of these, 25 were pas̲h̲a sand̲j̲ag̲h̲i̊ , i.e. sand̲j̲aḳs in which were the capitals of an eyālet , the residence of the governor-general or wālī of a province. For further details, cf. Mouradgea d’Ohsson, Ta…

[see afg̲h̲ān ].

, a name given to a projected political unit based on the North West Frontier province (NWFP) of Pākistān. The project had a dual origin, in the NWFP and in Afg̲h̲ānistān. Although Pas̲h̲tūns possessed a strong sense of cultural identity deriving from language, genealogy, law and custom, there is no evidence before the 1920s of any desire for political expression of that identity. A precondition of the formulation of political demands was the creation of a political arena in the form of the NWFP. The origins of the province m…

, a former sultanate in southeastern Borneo, now in the province of Kalimantan Timur of the republic of Indonesia. It comprises the valley of the Pasir or Kendilo river, which, rising in the north on the borders of Kutei runs in a southeasterly direction along the eastern borders of the Beratos range and, turning east, finally reaches the straits of Makassar through a marshy district. The country, about 1,125 km2 in area, still contains primitive forest, in so far as the scanty population, which is found mainly in Pasir, the residence of the sultan, and in Tanah …

(Old Javanese, pasisi or pasir ; Indonesian, pesisir “shore, coast”) originally an administrative unit of the Central Javanese kingdom of Mataram emcompassing Java’s northern littoral from Cirebon in the west to Surabaya in the east. Historically, its importance comes from the establishment during the 15th-16th centuries of small Muslim enclaves within the prevailing religious mix of Hindu, Buddhist, and animistic beliefs. While traditions of the conversion to Islam at the hands of the wali sanga, or Nine Saints, differs from place to place, common to them are direct …

[see pasarofča ].

(written Pāsbān-og̲h̲lī , as if from Pers. pāsbān “guard, shepherd”, cf. Ḳāmūs al-Aʿlām , ii, 1467) or Pāzwānd-og̲h̲lī (as in ʿAbd al-Raḥmān S̲h̲eref. Taʾrīk̲h̲ , ii, 280) or, according to modern Turkish orthography, Pazvantoğlu (Hamit and Muhsin, Türkiye tarihi, 423), but on his own seal “Pāzwānd-zāde ʿOt̲h̲mān” (in Orěškov, see Bibl .), the rebel Pas̲h̲a of Vidin (1758-1807). His family originated in Tuzla in Bosnia, but his grandfather, Paswan Ag̲h̲a, for his services in the Austrian wars was granted two villages near Vidin [ q.v.] in Bulgaria in ca. 1739. ʿOt̲h̲mān’s father ʿÖm…

, one of the oldest and most renowned towns of Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.] in the Aḥmādabād district of Bombay. It was founded in 746 by the Čavadas of Gud̲j̲arāt. Originally known as Anhilwāra, the Arab geographers refer to it as Nahrwāla [see nahrawāl ]. Later, it became known as Pāt́an. According to the Mirʾāt-i Aḥmadī , the Hindus used the word Pātan for a big or capital town. The poet Farruk̲h̲ī [ q.v.] says that ¶ on its possession “Bhīm prided himself over the princes of India” (Nāẓim, The life and times of Sulṭān Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna , Cambridge 1931, 217). Sultan Maḥmūd …

(Thai: Pattani), a region of Southeast Asia, formerly a Malay Sultanate but now included in Thailand (as a result of the Treaty of Bangkok, 1909, between Great Britain and Siam), and at present comprised of the four southern provinces of Pattani, Narathiwat, Yala (Jala) and Satun. The population of these four provinces is approximately 1,500,000, 80% of whom are Malay Muslims. From the 14th to 18th centuries, Patani was a leading entrepôt for trade between China and Southeast Asia. The conversion of the royal court to Islam, reportedly in the mid-15th cen…

, a small town on an island of that name in East Africa. It lies in lat. 2°05′ S., and long. 41°05′ E., off the Kenya coast in the Lamu [ q.v.] archipelago. The use by Arab sailors of the Mkanda , the channel between it and Lamu, is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , written ca. A.D. 50. Aḥmad b. Mād̲j̲id al-Nad̲j̲dī identifies it as Batā , and several epitaphs spell the adjective Batāwī . H.N. Chittick excavated the periphery of the site in the 1960s, and claimed that it was not occupied before the 14th century. An excavation by Athma…

[see afg̲h̲ān ].

, a city in Bihār Province of the Indian Union, situated on the right bank of the Ganges (lat. 25° 37′ N., long. 85° 8′ E.) and with a population (1971 census) of 474,000. In the years 1912-36, it was the capital of the province of Bihar and Orissa of British India, and subsequently, of Bihar alone. From 1116/1704 onwards, it is known in Muslim chronicles as ʿAẓīmābād, after Awrangzīb’s grandson ʿAẓīm al-S̲h̲aʾn who made his court here. Pat́nā, however, ¶ had already been selected as the Muslim provincial capital of Bihār [ q.v.] by the Afg̲h̲ān ruler S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh in 948/1541. At that …

[see baliabadra ].

, patriarch, the form found in Ottoman Turkish (see Redhouse, Turkish and English lexicon, s.v.) for the Patriarchs of the Greek Orthodox and Eastern Christian Churches in the empire, of whom by the 19th century there were seven. It stems from the Arabic form biṭrīḳ/baṭrīḳ [ q.v.] “patricius”, confused with baṭriyark/baṭraḳ “patriarch”, also not infrequently found in mediaeval Arabic usage as faṭrak . See G. Graf, Verzeichnis arabischer kirchliche Termini 2, Louvain 1954, 84; C.E. Bosworth, Christian and Jewish religious dignitaries in Mamlûk Egypt and Syria ..., in IJMES, iii (197…

, Ottoman rebel (d. 14 D̲j̲umādā I 1143/25 November 1730). Of Albanian origin, he belonged to the protégés of the Ḳapudān-Pas̲h̲a Muṣṭafā and ʿAbdī Pas̲h̲a ( ca. 1680-5 and later). He was born at K̲h̲urpis̲h̲te (Khroupista, now Argos Orestikon, to the south of Kastoria, Greece). He served as a Lewend [ q.v.] on board the flagship of the Ottoman vice-admiral, the Patrona (for this term, see riyala) whence probably his name. Transferred from naval service, he was able to join the Seventeenth Orta of the Janissary Corps in which he served till the peace set…

, the name given in the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar’s monetary system to the ¼ dām (¼ paysā ). (J. Allan)

, the Ottoman Turkish form of modern Turkish Payas, a small town at the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta 18 km/12 miles north of Iskandarūn [ q.v.] (lat. 36° 46′ N., long. 36° 10′ E.). Lying as it ¶ does in the very narrow coastal corridor between the sea and the Amanus Mts. or D̲j̲abal al-Lukkām [ q.v.], the modern Turkish Gavur Dağlari, Payās has always been a strategically important point on the route from Cilicia to Antioch; the name itself goes back to that of the classical Greek town of Baiae (see PW, ii/2, col. 2775 (Ruge)). In the early Islamic period, Payās was on the road connecting…

(t.), a Turkish name found e.g. among the early Sald̲j̲ūḳs, usually written P.y.g̲h̲ū or B.y.g̲h̲ū . In many sources on the early history of the Sald̲j̲ūḳs these orthographies seem to reflect the old Turkish title Yabg̲h̲u , which goes back at least to the time of the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions (see C.E. Bosworth and Sir Gerard Clauson, in JRAS [1965], 9-10), and it was the Yabg̲h̲u of the western, Og̲h̲uz Turks whom the eponymous ancestor of the Sald̲j̲ūḳs, Duḳāḳ Temir-Yali̊g̲h̲ “Iron-bow” served (see Cl. Cahen, in Oriens , ii [1949], 42; Bosworth, The Ghaznavids , their empire in Afghanistan a…

, Paisā (Hindi), English form pice, a copper coin of British India = 3 pies or ¼ anna. Under the Mug̲h̲als, the name paisā became applied to the older dām, introduced by S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh, 40 of which went to the rupee, as the unit of copper currency; the name found on the coins however is usually simply fulūs or rewānī . Paisā is the general name for the extensive ¶ copper coinage coined in the 18th and 19th centuries by the numerous native states which arose out of the Mug̲h̲al empire (see J. Prinsep, Useful tables, ed. E. Thomas, London 1858, 62-3). In the currencies of modern India and Pakistan, 100 pais…

, a Turkic tribal confederation of mediaeval central and western Eurasia. Their ethnonym appears in our sources as Tibet. Be-ča-nag , Arabo-Persian Bd̲j̲nāk , Bd̲j̲ānāk , Bd̲j̲ynh , Georg. Pačanik-i , Arm. Pacinnak , Greek Πατζινακῑται, Πατζινάκοι, Rus’. Pečeneg’ Lat. Pizenaci , Bisseni , Bysseni , Bessi , Beseneu , Pol. Pieczyngowie and Hung. Besenyő (< Bes̲h̲enäg̲h̲ ) = Bečenäk/Pečenäk . It has been etymologised, with some uncertainty (cf. Pritsak, Pečenegs , 211; Bazin, À propos du nom des Petchénèques ), as a variant of bad̲j̲anak/bad̲j̲i̊nak “in-law” (>Old Church Slav. Pas̲h̲eno…

, Ibrāhīm (982- ca. 1060/1574-ca. 1649-50), Ottoman historian. Pečewī was born in 982/1574 in Pécs in southwestern Hungary, whence his epithet Pečewī (or, alternatively, Pečuylu, from the Croatian ). His family had a long tradition of Ottoman military service. Both his great-grandfather Ḳara Dāwūd and his grandfather D̲j̲aʿfer Beg served as alay begi in Bosnia; his father (name unknown) took part in campaigns in Bosnia, and in ʿlrāḳ during the 1530s (Pečewī, Taʾrīk̲h̲ , i, 87, 102-6, 436-7, ii, 433). Pečewī’s mother was a member of the Ṣoḳollu [ q.v.] family. At the age of 14, after…

[see bad̲j̲d̲j̲āna ].

(Ottoman Pečūy , German Fünfkirchen, Latin Quinque Ecclesiae), town and centre of a sand̲j̲aḳ in Transdanubian Hungary. Founded on the site of Roman Sopianae and preserving remnants of buildings from the first centuries of Christianity, Pécs became an episcopal see in 1009, housed the first university of the country (established in 1367) and was the most important economic centre south of Lake Balaton throughout the Middle Ages. The town surrendered without fight to the forces of Ḳāsi̊m, sand̲j̲aḳ-begi of Mohács [ q.v.], and Murād, sand̲jaḳ-begi of Pozsega…

[see biṭraws̲h̲ ].

[see pahlawān ].

[see mora ].

, an island of East Africa. It appears in Yāḳūt and other authors as al-D̲j̲azīra al-K̲h̲aḍrāʾ. and lies to the north of Zanzibar [ q.v.] off the Tanzanian coast. There has been much debate whether the Menouthias mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is Pemba or Zanzibar, with the balance in favour of the former. At ca. A.D. 50, it attests Egyptian and Arab trade in the area. ¶ Nothing is heard of it until al-D̲j̲āḥiẓ (d. 255/868-9), who mentions Land̲j̲ūya , a corruption of al-Ungud̲j̲a, the Swahili name for Zanzibar, pairing it with an island …

(Malay name Pulau Pinang), a state of the Federation of Malaysia consisting of the island of Penang (113 sq. miles) in the Straits of Malacca and a strip of land on the mainland opposite known as Province Wellesley or Seberang Prai (285 sq. miles) linked by a road bridge since 1985. The capital, Georgetown, ranks with Johor Bahru as Malaysia’s second most populous urban centre (both a little over ¶ 400,000 in 1980) behind the Federal capital of Kuala Lumpur. The sparsely inhabited island was acquired from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786 for the East India Company as an entrepôt…

(t., from Persian pand̲j̲a “palm of the hand”), a term of Ottoman Turkish diplomatic. It was a mark, somewhat resembling an open hand and extended fingers, affixed (on either of the left- or right-hand margins or at the foot of the scroll) to documents, such as fermāns [see farmān ] and buyuruldus [ q.v.], issued from the Ottoman chancery by higher officials such as viziers, beglerbegs and sand̲j̲aḳ begs . (Ed.) Bibliography F. Kraelitz-Greifenhorst, Studien zur osmanische Urkundenlehre. 1. Die Handfeste ( Penče) der osmanischen Wesire, in MOG, ii (1923-6), 257 ff. İ.H. Uzunçarşili, Tuğr…

(t., from Persian pand̲j̲ yak “fifth”), a term of Ottoman Turkish financial and administrative usage. It denoted the fifth which the sultan drew as the ruler’s right (equivalent to the Arabic k̲h̲ums [ q.v.in Suppl.]) from booty captured in the Dār al-Ḥarb . This involved, in particular, the collection of young boys from the Christian Balkans and Greece by the process of the dews̲h̲irme [see devs̲h̲irme ], and these were then trained for either palace or military service as the ḳapi̊ ḳullari̊ ; the official in charge of the process of thus extracting the sultan’s fifth was termed the pend̲j̲i…

(Indonesian and Malay), literally, “headman, chief, director”, used in Southeast Asia as a title for secular and religious leaders. In areas where Malay was the common language the word has often been used for chiefs of tribes and clans. In older Malay writings it is also used as an honorific title for the prophet Muḥammad, indicating him as “leader of all the prophets” ( penghulu para nabi). In more Javanised areas the word indicated the highest religious officials, both at the central courts of the various sultanates and at places where the authority was exe…

[see istanbul ].

, a sultanate on the west coast of the Malay peninsula. It became politically independent in the early 16th century following the fall of its overlord Malacca [ q.v.] to the Portuguese in 1511. Sometime after 1528, the elder son of the refugee Malacca sultan fled to Perak where the people accepted him as ruler. Perak was already known for its extensive tin deposits, and under this new régime it began to expand economically. But although it inherited many of Malacca’s cultural traditions, including adherence to Sunnī Islam …

[see mayyūn ].

AARP Art and Archaeology Research Papers AAS Asian and African Studies Abh. A. W. Gött. Abhandlungen der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Abh. K. M. Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes Abh. Pr. Ak. W. Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Afr. Fr. Bulletin du Comitè de l'Afrique française AI Annales Islamologiques AIEO Alger Annales de l'Institut d'Ètudes Orientales de l'Universitè d’Alger (N.S. from 1964) AIUON Annali dell' Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli Anz. Wien Anzeiger der [kaiserlichen] Akademie der Wissenschaft…

, the name of two Ottoman statesmen. I. Pertew Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a , Ottoman admiral and wezīr , started his career on the staff of the imperial harem, became ḳapud̲j̲i̊ bas̲h̲i̊ [see Ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ ], later Ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries, and in 962/1555 he was advanced to the rank of wezīr; in 968/1561 he was appointed third wezīr, in 982/1574 second wezīr and finally commander ( serdār ) of the imperial fleet under the ḳapudan pas̲h̲a Muʾed̲h̲d̲h̲in-zāde ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a. He had fought at the Battle of Lepanto [see aynabak̲h̲ti̊ ]. He later fell into disgrace and died in I…

[see prizren ].

, Javanese “santri-place”, the educational institution of Indonesia where students ( santri ) study classical Islamic subjects and pursue an orthoprax communal life. Pondok (“hut, cottage”; cf. Ar. funduḳ ) is an alternative term, meaning “lodgings” and, by extension, “Islamic religious boarding school”. Pesantren is used most often in Indonesia (especially Java), whereas pondok is the preferred term in Malaysia and the Patani region of ¶ southern Thailand. Sometimes the two terms are combined in Indonesia, when the speaker means to make clear that a traditio…

, a city of Muslim India, in the northwestern part of the subcontinent, now in Pakistan (lat. 34° 01′ N., long. 71° 40′ E., altitude 320 m/1,048 ft.). In modern Pākistān, it is also the name of various administrative units centred on the city (see below). The district is bounded on the east by the river Indus, which separates it from the Pand̲j̲āb and Hazāra, and on the south-east by the Nīlāb G̲h̲as̲h̲a range which shuts it off from the district of Kō…

, a Persian word for “leader” with various connotations (Pahl. pēs̲h̲ōpay ). As a title, it was used for one of the ministers of the Bahmanī sultans of the Dakhan and, more specifically, the hereditary ministers of the Marāt́hā kings of Satara [see marāt́hās ]. At first, the Pēs̲h̲wā was only the mukhya pradhān or “prime minister” of Śivād̲j̲ī’s Council of Eight, and this post was not hereditary up to 1125/1713, the year of the accession of Bālād̲j̲ī Visvanāth, when the Pēs̲h̲wā began to outstrip the other pradhāns and the Pratīnīdhī in importance. When the P…

(Ottoman Pes̲h̲te ), formerly a separate town, in Ottoman times centre of a nāḥiye in the sand̲j̲aḳ of Budīn [ q.v.], today part of the capital of Hungary. It was an earlier settlement than Buda, with mostly German inhabitants. After the Mongol invasion in A.D. 1241-2, with the creation of the fortification on the Castle Hill of present-day Buda (called new Pest for a period), Pest slowly lost some of its importance and was overshadowed by the capital, to which also the Germans moved. Nevertheless, the population of Pest reached some 7-8,000 souls at the end of the 15th century. Although surro…

[see waradīn ].

, Andalusian polemicist and translator ( fl. A.D. 1106-ca. 1130), convert to Christianity in 1106, composed his Dialogi contra Iudaeos in 1108 or 1110. Staged as a debate between his former Jewish self (Moses), and his present Christian self (Peter), the Dialogi ridicule Talmudic Aggadah, showing that they contradict principles of Graeco-Arabic philosophy and science (in particular astronomy); the Dialogi became the most widely-read anti-Jewish text of the Latin Middle Ages. In the fifth chapter of the Dialogi Alfonsi attacks Islam, following—to a l…