Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

[see ʿād̲j̲ ].

, exchange value, compensation, that which is givén in exchange for something. In a very broad and generally accepted sense, the word is used in works of fiḳh to denote the counterpart of the obligation of each of the contracting parties in onerous contracts which are called “commutative” ( muʿāwaḍāt , from the same root as ʿiwaḍ ); that is, contracts which necessarily give rise to obligations incumbent upon both parties. Thus in a sale, the price ( t̲h̲aman ) and the thing sold are each the ʿiwaḍ of the other. Understood in this sense, compensation must be exactly determined and,…

, a leading scholar and theologian, originally from Ak̲h̲sīkat near Samarḳand [ q.v.], was considered peerless in his day in both rational and traditional sciences. He received his education at Balk̲h̲ in the “dars” of his namesake Mīr ʿIwaḍ Tās̲h̲kentī. After completing his education he returned to his native village where he began teaching. Later he moved to Balk̲h̲ and was still teaching when that town fell to the Mug̲h̲al army under Awrangzīb. He came to India in 1056/1646; he entered the imperial service and was appointed muftī of the army. In 1069/1659,…

, also eyvān and at times in spoken Arabic līwān , a Persian word adopted by the Turkish and Arabic languages and then by western travellers, archaeologists and art historians to refer to certain characteristic features of Near Eastern and especially Islamic architecture. Since there are notable differences in the meanings given to this term in mediaeval texts and in modern scholarship, the two must be clearly separated. It has been suggested that the word itself derives from Old Persian apadana (E. Herzfeld, Mythos und Geschichte , in Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran …

, an ancient Arab tribe whose ancestor Iyād is according to the genealogists the son of Nizār b. Maʿadd and the brother of Rabīʿa, Anmār, and Muḍar. They dwelt first in the Tihāma. The Meccan tradition (see Wüstenfeld, Chroniken , ii, 137 ff.) tells that they drove the D̲j̲urhum from Mecca and made themselves masters of the Kaʿba, but were turned out after a quarrel with the Ḵh̲uzāʿa. They went to Baḥrayn, where they formed with other tribes the confederation al-Tanūk̲h̲ [ q.v.]. Then they moved into ʿIrāḳ where the Sawād, the fertile region between the desert and the Euphrat…

b. ʿIyād b. ʿAmrūn al-Yaḥṣubī al-Sabtī al-Ḳāḍī (476/1088-544/1149) was one of the most celebrated figures of Mālikism in the Muslim West. His existence coincided almost exactly with that of the Almoravid dynasty to whom throughout his life he remained inflexibly attached. His family, of Yemeni origin through the Yaḥṣub, emigrated to the West very early and finally settled at Ceuta, after residing in Basta [ q.v.], in Muslim Spain, in Fez, and also in Ḳayrawān at some indeterminate date. His great grandfather ʿAmrūn was the first of the family to win fame, by …

(a.), as opposed to faʾl [ q.v.] which denotes human omens (cledonism), is applied in a general sense to animal omens (zoomancy) and, in the strict sense, to ornithomancy, that is to say the art of divining omens in the names of birds, their cries, their flight and their posture ( TA, vi, 207, l. 24 ff.). With certain names of birds a fatal quality is associated, though why this is so is not always known; in general, black and greenish plumage and down constitute the only justification. This is the case with the crow, the roller, the jay, and with …

[see eyālet ].

[see sikka ].

al-Ṭāʾī , a pre-Islamic individual who played a certain role in the relations between Arabs and Persians, but whose biography is not absolutely clear. According to Ibn al-Kalbī-Caskel ( Ǧamharat an-nasab, Tab. 252, and ii, 361), his genealogy appears to be as follows: Iyās b. Ḳabīṣa b. Abī ʿUfr/ʿAfrā b. al-Nuʿmān b. Ḥayya b. Saʿna b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. al-Ḥuwayrit̲h̲ b. Rabīʿa b. Mālik b. Safr b. Hinʾ b. ʿAmr b. al-G̲h̲awt̲h̲ b. Ṭayyiʾ (thus his nisba is to be amended in the article d̲h̲ū Ḳār ). This Arab chieftain succeeded in gaining the favour of Ḵh̲usraw Aparwīz (Kisrā Abarwīz), …

b. Ḳurra al-Muzanī , Abū Wāt̲h̲ila, was appointed ḳāḍī of Baṣra during the caliphate of ʿUmar b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz in 99/718 (the date 95/714 given by Wakīʿ is incorrect, for ʿUmar did not succeed to the caliphate until 99, and also it was ʿAdī b. Arṭāt, governor of the town from 99-101, who chose Iyās for the post on the caliph’s orders); he did not accept this post very enthusiastically (see especially an anecdote related by Ibn Ḳutayba, ʿ Uyūn , i, 62, which shows incidentally that parallel jurisdictions were still in existence), and in fact gave it up …

[see ismāʿīl ].

, modern form İzmi̇t , a town of northwestern Turkey, lying at the head of the Gulf of Izmit (Izmit Körfezi) in lat. 40° 47′ N., long. 29° 55′ E. It is the classical Nicomedia, named after Nicomedes I of Bithynia, who in 264 B.C. founded it as his new capital. The Roman emperor Diocletian made it in the late 3rd century A.D. his capital in the east; it was there that he abdicated in 305 (see W. Ruge, art. Nikomedeia , in PW, xvii/1, cols. 468-92). The spelling Nikumīdiyya appears in such Arabic geographers as Ibn Ḵh̲urradād̲h̲bih and al-Idrīsī, and subsequently, forms like Izn…

, the Turkish form of the ancient Greek name Smyrna , one of the great mercantile cities of the Eastern Mediterranean. It lies in western Anatolia at the head of the Gulf of Izmir, and the pre-modern city lay mainly on the small delta plain of the Kızılcullu (ancient Melas) river. Izmir has a history going back five millennia, archaeological excavations having revealed the earliest level of occupation as contemporary with the first city of Troy at the beginning of the Bronze Age ( ca. 3,000 B.C.). Greek settlement is indicated from ca. 1,000 B.C., and Herodotus says that the city was f…

, the ancient and Byzantine Nicaea ( Nīḳīya in Ibn Ḵh̲uradād̲h̲bih and al-Idrīsī), was besieged in vain by the Arabs in their first campaigns against Byzantium in 99/717 and 107/725 (Theophanes, ed. de Boor, i, 397 and 405 ff.) and fell at the beginning of 1081 (middle of 473) into the hands of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ Sulaymān, son of Ḳutlumus̲h̲, who made his residence there. The first Crusaders under Walter Sans-Avoir were severely defeated before Nicaea in 489/1096 by Alp Arslān, son and…

(in European literature one also finds ʿAzrāʾīl), the name of the an gel of death, one of the four archangels (next to D̲j̲ibrīl, Mīk̲h̲āʾīl, Isrāfīl). Like Isrāfīl, whose office of trumpet-blower at the last judgment is sometimes given to him, he is of cosmic magnitude; if the water of all the seas and rivers were poured on his head, not a drop would reach the earth. He has a seat ( sarīr ) of light in the fourth or seventh heaven, on which one of his feet rests; the other stands on the bridge between paradise and hell. He is however also said to have 70,000 feet. The description of his appearance a…

[see bak̲h̲tiyār ].

, an honorary title ( laḳab [ q.v.], pl. alḳāb ) of the kind which came into being at the beginning of the 4th/10th century, conferred by caliphs and later also by other sovereigns. The first person to receive an honorary title composed with dawla was the vizier of the caliph al-Muktafī (902-8), al-Ḳāsim; in 289/902 he was entitled Walī al-Dawla (Friend of the Dynasty). Originally dawla [ q.v.] signified: turn, reversal (especially in battle), then it became the designation of the old Mahdī propaganda, and from the middle of the 3rd/9th century attained the mean…

This laḳab originated within the same historical context as alḳāb constructed with dawla. The muḍāfāt are for the most part identical with those mentioned under ʿizz al-dawla , and can be classified according to their meaning in the same groups, at least in earlier times. In the light of this nomenclature, it is very doubtful if the laḳab on a coin from Wāsiṭ of the year 256/869-70 should indeed read ʿAlī al-Dīn. The first indubitable laḳab with dīn mentioned in the narrative sources was granted to the Kurdish Barzikānī amīr Badr b. Ḥasan-wayh in 38…

[see al-sulamī ].