Brill’s Encyclopedia of China

Unlike its European counterpart, which until the 18th century usually contained forms of political and social criticism of the authorities and moral standards, erotic literature in China did not have an emancipatory character, but generally affirmed existing social conditions. The overall genre of erotic and pornographic literature in China can be divided into three sub-categories: (1) poetry, (2) erotic and sexual manuals, and (3) erotic and pornographic prose. (1) Erotic poetry is still the least explored area of this literature. In the West it is largely unkn…

1. Definitions China has a long essayistic tradition. A definition of the term proves difficult, however, since the Chinese essay is perhaps even more chameleon-like than its Western equivalent, both in terms of content and form. There are numerous words for "essay" in the Chinese language. The most common expression is sanwen. The term, however, not only means "essay," but also "free prose" as opposed to rhymed poetry or parallel prose ( pianwen). Additional related terms are shihua/ cihua (poetic conversations), youji (travel writing), biji/suibi (brush notes), xiaopin (personal…

From a historical and sociological point of view, and depending on the respective school of thought, Chinese ethics ( lunlixue) presents a very diverse picture. In a theoretically elaborated form it evolved since the middle of the first millennium BCE. Its precursors were, among others, archaic ideas of mutuality; the principle of "virtue" ( de) which stood at the center of the heavenly religion of the early Zhou and against which rulers were measured; first challenges of particularism; and, in legal practice, some at least partially respected prin…

The relations between the People's Republic of China and the countries of Western Europe were initially burdened by the emerging East-West conflict and the simultaneous existence of two Chinese states (Taiwan Question). Only smaller, neutral states diplomatically recognized the new government in Beijing and were similarly recognized by Beijing; among them were Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, and Finland. The early diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic by Great Britain (January 6, 1950), however, was not reciprocated by Beijing. 1. From Rejection to Instrumentaliz…