Religion Past and Present

[German Version] There are 23 Syriac expositions traditionally ascribed to “Afrahat (Aphraates), the Persian sage.” Gennadius Vir. ill. 1 (= 136) and the Armenian tradition mistakenly identify the author with the renowned Jacob of Edessa (from Nisibis), who as bishop of Edessa took part in the Council of Nicea. Little is known of Afrahat's life and person. He describes himself as a celibate ascetic, one of the so-called “sons of the covenant” (18, 1, 12); he was active in the western region of the Sassanid Empire (10, 9). His literary corpus is divided into two sections (10, 9): the first (expositions 1–10) dates from the year 337 and treats ascetic and practical questions; the twelve expositions (11–22) of the second section, dating from the year 344 (22, 25), display a marked anti-Jewish attitude and discuss the validity of Jewish rituals, the election of the church, the divine sonship of the Messiah, and eschatological themes. Afrahat is a significant literary figure: he can be called the first major witness to an independent Syriac literature that does not owe its existence to translation from the Greek. His skill as a writer rests in his imaginative reproduction and assimilation of traditional materials, especially from the OT and Jewish sources. His major theological sources are the OT and the gospel, which …

[German Version] (martyr, died c. 304). The earliest witnesses to Afra's veneration are Venantius Fortunatus (c. 560) and the Martyrologium Hieronymianum (Bern Codex, c. 600). The author of an early medieval Afra Passion (7th cent.?) portrayed Afra as a converted prostitute ( meretrix), who, because of her Christian confession, was condemned to be burned at the stake. The extent to which an authentic tra…

[German Version] I. Geopolitical Survey – II. History of Religion – III. Christianity I. Geopolitical Survey Africa presents a troubled, contradictory picture. Its population is growing faster than that of any other continent. Civil wars and repeated periods of drought force millions to flee. An aggressive Islamism is unsettling the fragile equilibrium of multireligious societies. Political borders dr…

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[German Version] I. Central and South America – II. North America I. Central and South America 1. Movements and Denominations. The millions of African slaves brought to the Americas and the Caribbean found in their religion the deepest and most enduring mode of cultural resistance, enabling them to survive slavery and recover their identities. The African deities, uprooted and under attack, w…

[German Version] I. Since the 18th century there has been a massive invasion of Black, sub-Saharan Africa by European peoples and Western culture. During this period the modern missionary movement from the West has planted its churches so extensively and firmly that the sub-continent is now predominantly Christian. Following this initial response to missions, …

[German Version] (AICA). The tendency of the African indigenous churches (cf. African Independent Churches) in South Africa towards divisions is countered by efforts to cooperate. AICA is connected to these initiatives, which go back to 1915. AICA was founded in 1965 as a voluntary association of over 400 churches which, while retaining their individual autono…

[German Version] This Church was founded in 1816 in the Bethel Church of Philadelphia, PA, under the leadership of its first bishop, R. Allen, after a Methodist Episcopal congregation refused entry to some free blacks as early as 1787. The AMEC developed a Book of Discipline and a statement on the “Mission and Purpose of the Church,” which emphasized the “preaching of the gospel” and social service. A General Conference, meeting every four years, legislates…

[German Version] In the 1790s tensions arose between whites and free blacks in the Methodist Episcopal Church in New York City. As a result, blacks founded a Zion Church and a denomination of black Methodists in 1820. James Varick became the first superintendent or bishop. Disagreements with the African Methodist Episcopal Church resulted in the addition of the word Zion. The congregations follow the rules of the Doctrines and Disciplines. A General Conference is the supreme lawmaking body and meets every four years. A Connectional …

[German Version] I. Development – II. Leading Representatives This article will not deal with the North African Latin fathers or the Orthodox churches. Modern movements in Ethiopia and Sudan which have emerged from recent conflicts, are mainly represented at present by oral vernacular theology. For the purposes of this article African theology may be defined as Chri…

[German Version] The time from the arrival of the first African slaves in the Antilles in 1502 to the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888, witnessed the development – in addition to the Indo-America of Indian peoples and the Euro-America of the great immigrations of the 19th century – of an Afro-America of approx. 11 m. slaves abducted from Africa. Today's …

[German Version] I. Beliefs: The Orixás – II. Sacrifice and Trance – III. Inner-worldly Religion – IV. Organization – V. The “Churchification” of Candomblé I. Beliefs: The Orixás The Afro-Brazilian religions, such as represented by the best-known and normative variety, the Candomblé, consist essentially in the worship of certain supernatural beings, the Orixás, of West African (mainly Yoruba) origin. The …

[German Version] Turko-Persian title (“lord prince”). In 1848 the shah of Persia bestowed the title on his son-in-law, the 46th imām of the Shiʿite sect of the Ismaʿilites. The title has been borne ever since by the imām of the sect, who are considered direct descendants and legitimate successors of the prophet Muḥammad. The 48th im…

[German Version] Eros Love, Love-feast

[German Version] Acts of the Martyrs

[German Version] is the compiler of an Armenian biography of St. Gregory the Illuminator, written in the second half of the 5th century, as well as of a legend about the conversion of Armenia. This historical work emphasizes the independence of the Armenian Church over against the Byzantine Church; it points out both Syrian and Greek influence. Ēúmiacin is hailed as the center of Christian culture in Armenia. The Armenian text, cited as early as the late 5th century, was translated into Greek in the 6th century and then into Arabic. Christian Hannick Bibliography F. Tournebize, art. “Aga…

[German Version] a Christian from a prominent family in Catania, where she is still venerated as the patron of the city. She suffered martyrdom, probably in the persecution under Decius (251?). The Eparch Quintian wanted to alienate her from her faith and committed her for this purpose to a brothel-keeper named Aphrodisias; Agatha remained firm. After they cut…

[German Version] Carpus, Papylus and Agathonice

[German Version] (Apr 10, 1860, Ilesha, Nigeria – May 17, 1917, Lagar, Nigeria) was born David Brown Vincent. His English name attests to the Western cultural influence which characterized his father's generation of “Black Englishmen.” His adoption of an African name should be considered with regard to the upheavals within the African Church in the late 19th c…

[German Version] The call for unity issued by king Frederick William III of Prussia in 1817 aimed at effecting a liturgical union between Lutherans and Reformed Protestants: Under the influence of Enlightenment ("a better spirit"), "inessentials" were to be set aside, as only "external differences" continued to divide the two confessions. This was a misevaluation, for the old doctrinal controversies awakened in opposition to the union. In the Agenda Dispute, the work of unity was put to its first test of endurance. The king had already ordered liturgical reforms: in 1818 the …

[German Version] Haggadah

[German Version] (Ital.: “updating”) was used by Pope John XXIII. Closely associated with Vatican II, the term means the recognition of the historicity of the church and the church's adaptation to the modern world with a view to presenting its expressions and practices in a new way. This entailed adopting these formulations and practices in contemporary contexts. The process of aggiornamento had its greatest impact in the fields of liturgical practices, canon law, doctrinal formulations, as well as ecumenical dialogue. William T. Flynn Bibliography R. Marlé, Études 315, 1962, …

[German Version] since the 1960s a central social theme (violence against women, children, aliens, etc.), is as old as humankind (Cain and Abel, “conflict, the father of all things” in Heraclitus, the dualistic system of love and strife in Empedocles). Aggression is understood as purposefully destructive behavior that threatens harm or actually does harm to ot…

[German Version] (May 5, 1860, Batac, Philippines – Sep 1, 1940, Manila) studied theology, was consecrated to the priesthood in 1889, took part in the Filipino struggle for liberation (from 1896 against Spain, 1898–1901 against the USA), fought for the political independence of the country and at the same time for the indigenization of the Catholic Church. Thi…

[German Version] was a Roman martyr (Western feast day Jan 21, Eastern Jul 5). According to 4th-century tradition ( Depositio Martyrum of 354), the Roman martyr – spared from the flames – was stabbed or beheaded under Diocletian (or Valerian?). The name and legend of Agnes, who suffered dual martyrdom for the sake of decency and religion (Ambr., Virg. I 2.9), could have developed in Rome (as well as in Trier) from the Greek virtue ἁγνός ( hagnos). Since late Constantinian times, her cult has been localized in the via Nomentana in the vicinity of the circul…

[German Version] Communities of the order: 1. Augustinian Sisters, of Dordrecht. Founded according to tradition in 1326, they belonged from 1427 onward to the Windesheim Congregation (regulated Augustinian choristers) and, from the end of the 15th century, called themselves “Sisters of St. Agnes” after their church, dedicated to St. Agnes; they were disbanded in 1572. 2. Sisters of St. Agnes: The Sœurs de St. Agnès, founded in 1645 in Arras by Jeanne Biscot to rear and educate orphans, are spiritually influenced by …

[German Version] (St. Agnietenberg, Mons S. Agnetis) is one of the most important and influential monasteries of the Windesheim Canons Regular of St. Augustine, near Zwolle (Netherlands). In 1384, Brethren of the Common Life assembled there; they resettled on Nemelerberg; their founding document dates to 1395. Their house became a monastery in 1398; it was abolished in 1561 and disbanded in 1581. Thomas à Kempis (died 1471) was chronicler and occasional subprior of Agnetenberg; Wessel Gansfort (died 1489) was closely linked to Agnetenberg. Jan Mombaer (died 1501) entered c. 1480. Chr…

[German Version] (Jul 17, 1888, Buczacz, Poland – Feb 2, 1970, Jerusalem), the greatest novelist in modern Hebrew literature. Agnon immigrated to Jerusalem in 1907 and spent the years 1913–1924 in Germany, mostly in Berlin, where he was in touch with M. Buber, Gershom Schocken and Zalman Schocken; he finally settled in Talpiot, Jerusalem in 1924. Agnon developed an original …

[German Version] I. History of Religions – II. Philosophy of Religion – III. Practical Theology – IV. Missiology I. History of Religions The term “agnosticism” originally referred to the impossibility of attaining certain metaphysical knowledge or, with reference to transcendent questions, to gain grounded judgments. The term stems from T.H. Huxley (1869; see also II). While for Huxley, agnosticism was epistemologically justified, the use of the term today is usually motivated in a variety of ways. The Sophist Protagoras of Abdera ( On the Gods, DK 80B4), who …

[German Version] In Acts 17:23, Luke relates how Paul chose the altar inscription “to an unknown God” (ἀγνώστῳ θεῷ/ agnṓstō theṓ) as the starting point for his Areopagus Speech in Athens. This is the earliest testimony to a cult of “unknown gods” and the only testimony for the cult of an “unknown god” in the singular. Pagan and Christian authors from the 2nd to the 4th centuries (including Paus. I 1.4; V 14.8; Diog. Laert. I 110; Philostr. Vita ap. VI 3; Tert. Marc. I 9; Nat. II 9.4; Jer. Comm. Tit. I 12; Ep. 70) mentioned altars for unkown gods in Olympia…

[German Version] I. Liturgy – II. Music I. Liturgy Already at an early stage the Eastern Church describes the Eucharistic bread as Amnos (Lamb) and signifies the breaking of bread as Christ's sacrifice (John 1:29; Rev 5:6f.). The Syrian pope Sergius I (died 701) introduced the Agnus Dei – known from the Gloria and litany – as a frequently repeated chant for the breaking of bread. With the introduction of eucharistic wafers its use lapsed; the now three-fold acclamation changes to the Peace and closes with the petition “give us your peace.” Hans-Christoph Schmidt-Lauber Bibliography J.A. J…

[German Version] (c. 769 – Jun 6, 840). A Visigoth from Septimania who belonged to the circle of Benedict of Aniane. He became archbishop of Lyon in 816; he was deposed as archbishop in 835 after the restoration of Emperor Louis I, the Pious whom Abogard had helped to depose in 833. A single manuscript preserves a series of tractates that show Abogard to be an…

[German Version] ᾽Αγών (contest), (a) a gathering (etym. ἀγω), a gathering-place and arena (b) chiefly for contests held for a prize; (c) multi-faceted metaphorical usage. – 1. Originally local contests accompanying funerals, agons developed into pan-Hellenic feasts (Olympia, Nemea [Zeus]; Pythia [Apollo]; Isthmia [Poseidon]). Almost anything, physical exercise, beauty, crafts, art, theater, singing, poetry and speaking, can become an agon according to the aristocratic principle of αἀὲν ἀριστεύειν καὶ ὑπείροχον ἔμμεναι ἄλλων (“always be the …

[German Version] The Greek loanword (lit. “unwritten,” pl.) is a term with only limited usefulness in modern Jesus research. In contrast to “written” and requiring specification by a noun (“logia” in the sense of “dominical sayings”), it does indeed allude to Early Church diction, but is now used as a collective term for dominical sayings not contained in the canonical Gospels. These are to be found in ancient literature of Christian, but also of Jewish and Islamic provenience, while the term does not presume a …

[German Version] Mission societies/Mission work

[German Version] (Schneyder, Sneider, Schnitter) (Apr 20, 1492 or 1494 or 1495, Eisleben – Sep 22, 1566, Berlin). He attended school in Braunschweig, matriculated in Leipzig in 1509, in Wittenberg in 1550; there, he attained his Magister on Feb 11, 1518, and Baccalaureus biblicus on Sep 19, 1519. Close personal relations with Luther in the years from 1516 were…

[German Version] born c. 1510 in Pernå (Pernaya) on the southern coast of Finland, died 1557 returning from the Swedish-Russian peace conference in Moscow. After attending school in Wiborg, Agricola became secretary to Bishop Martin Skytte, who was open to new theological ideas, in Åbo (Turku). He studied in Wittenberg (1536–1539) and was active thereafter as Rector of the cathedral …

[German Version] (Huisman) (Feb 17, 1444, Baflo – Oct 27, 1487, Heidelberg) was schooled in Groningen and undertook studies in Erfurt, Cologne, Louvain, Pavia and Ferrara (Huisman). He translated rhetorical and dialectical works from Greek. In 1480 he was a lawyer for the city of Groningen. In 1484 he taught in Heidelberg and maintained frequent contact with humanists and journeyed to Rome. His writings, published posthumously, have had enduring influence. Heinz Scheible Bibliography Works include: Opuscula Orationes Epistolae, 1539, repr. 1975 De inventione dialectica libri…

[German Version] (Kastenbauer) (1491?, Abensberg – Apr 10, 1547, Eisleben) studied in Vienna from 1513, became an Augustinian hermit here in 1515, was awarded a doctorate in theology in 1519 and then became a monastic lector in Regensburg and Rattenberg. In 1522 he was imprisoned in Mühldorf (Inn) on account of his evangelical doctrine and fled in May 1524. In…

[German Version] I. History of Religion – II. Palestine – III. In Literature I. History of Religion 1. The forms of economy consisting of agriculture and stock-farming do not influence the formation of systems of religious symbols in such a way as to constitute a consistent pattern for specific historical religions. Nonetheless, systems of religious symbols in all societies not structured according to …

[German Version] Heresy

[German Version] , father and son, the last Herodian kings. The brief reign of Agrippa I, grandson of Herod, is a hiatus in the progressive Roman annexation of all of Palestine. He is best known for his persecution of the Church (Acts 12). After his death imperial governors again ruled Palestine. Small sections in the north and north-east were granted first to Agrippa I's brother and then to Agrippa II, who eventually acquired some territories in Galilee and also Peraea, maintaining his position until the 90s. He attempted to dissuade the Jews of Jerusalem from rebellion (Josephus, War II, …

[German Version] (Sep 14, 1486, Cologne – Feb 18, 1535, Grenoble). Following his studies at the Faculty of Arts in Cologne (1499–1502) and in Paris, Agrippa worked as a lecturer, physician, syndic and historiographer. At times he also served Emperor Maximilian I, among other places in Burgundy, Pavia, England, Metz, Geneva, Fribourg, Lyon, Antwerp and Mecheln and had numerous conflicts with the Inquisition or with representatives of scholastic theology. In his principal work, De occulta philosophia (in printed form since 1531), under the inf…