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From early on, the Chinese system of periodization was based on the reigns of the respective rulers. This system was refined during the early Han dynasty. For instance, since 100 BCE, each emperor chose a reign title ( nianhao), either for the entire duration or a certain part of his rule. The proclamation of a reign title would start the counting of years of a new era. In late imperial times, it became customary for each ruler to announce only one reign title for his entire period of rule (calendar and chronology). Imperial histori…

The founder and eponym of Mohism was Mo Di (Mozi, "Master Mo"), who lived during the late 5th century BCE and was influential primarily in northern China. The Mohist school was rigidly organized under so-called grand masters and split into three groups as early as the 3rd century BCE. One century later, it had completely lost its relevance. The extensive canon of Mohist literature is also called Mozi . It was written over a long period of time and was not composed by Mo Di himself. The Mozi is characterized by substantial textual problems. The reasons for this are that it was only…

1. Imperial Period For over 2000 years, the Chinese seriously questioned the concept of the empire neither in political theory nor in practice, and the imperial period (221 BCE to 1911) is thus by far the longest era of Chinese history. The following sketched generalizations, however, must not conceal the fact that China's political system, here understood in the restricted sense of "system of government", underwent considerable historical changes. These changes took place essentially because the I…