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, soteriological expression used in the Ḳurʾān. The word occurs in various connexions in the Ḳurʾān and is usually translated as “discrimination”, “criterion”, “separation”, “deliverance”, or “salvation”, where it is translated at all. The Aramaic word purḳān on which it is modelled, ¶ means “deliverance”, “redemption”, and (in the Christian sense) “salvation”. The Arabic root faraḳa , which must be considered as another element in the furḳān of the Ḳurʾān, means “to separate”, “to divide”, “to distinguish”. Sūra VIII, 29 runs: “O believers, if you fear God, He will assign you a furḳān…

, a kind of town hall in Mecca in the time of Muḥammad. The building was to the north of the Kaʿba, on the other side of the square in which the ṭawāf took place. It was the gathering place of the nobles ( malaʾ ). The Dār al-Nadwa is said to have been built by Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.], who is taken to be the ancestor of the Ḳurays̲h̲ and founder of the Kaʿba. He bequeathed it to ʿAbd al-Dār and then to ʿAbd Manāf and his son Hās̲h̲im and Hās̲h̲im’s descendants. “All matters of import to the Ḳurays̲h̲” are said to have taken place there up to the coming of Islam…

( S̲h̲anbūd̲h̲ , S̲h̲annabūd̲h̲ ), Abu ’l-Ḥasan Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ayyūb b. al-Ṣalt al-Bag̲h̲dādī , widely travelled and learned ¶ “reader” of the Ḳurʾān and teacher of Ḳurʾānic reading, died Ṣafar 328/November-December 939, introduced in the public prayer ( fi ’l-miḥrāb ) readings of Ibn Masʿud, Ubay and others which varied from ʿUt̲h̲mān’s recension; for this, perhaps at the instigaion of his influential colleague Ibn Mud̲j̲āhid (whom he detested), he was brought to trial in 323/935 before a special court presi…

, “those of the trench”, an expression at the beginning of Ḳurʾān, LXXXV, which is difficult to understand. The verses 4-7 run: “Slain be those of the trench, of the fire fed with fuel, (lo) when they are sitting by it (i.e. the fire), while they are witnesses of what they do (were doing) with the believers!” The ancient Ḳurʾān commentators and historians refer the passage inter alia to the persecution of the Christians in Nad̲j̲rān under the Jewish king of South Aiabia Ḏh̲ū Nuwās [ q.v.] which—as far as is historically established— is to be placed in the year 523. It is alleged …

or Waḳfa (a.), “halt”, means in particular the halting of the pilgrims at any spot they choose within the plain of ʿArafa; it begins on the afternoon of the 9th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a and lasts till sunset. This wuḳūf is considered the most essential part of the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲. The imām of the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ usually introduces it (before the beginning of the combined ẓuhr and ʿaṣr ṣalāt) with a k̲h̲uṭba; his words can of course only be heard by those in his immediate neighbourhood. The pilgrims for their part recite portions of the Ḳurʾān, say prayers — mainly for forgiveness of sins — and cry labbaika [q. …

is a special name for the last three days of the Muḥammadan Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ (11th-13th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a: Aiyām al-Tas̲h̲rīḳ), during which the pilgrims, having finished their regular rites, stay in Minā and have to throw seven stones daily on each of the three piles of stones there. In the early period of Islām the name tas̲h̲rīḳ was also given to the solemn ṣalāt on the morning of the 10th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a. The term is probably a survival from the pre-Islāmic period and therefore could no longer be explained by the Muslims with certainty. For example the obvi…

, the pilgrim’s guide in Mecca. The word literally means one who leads the ṭawāf [ q.v.]. The task of the muṭawwif is, however, by no means limited to assisting pilgrims from foreign lands, who entrust themselves to their guidance, to go through the ceremonies required at the circumambulation of the Kaʿba. On the contrary, they act as guides at the saʿy also and at all other ceremonies which are prescribed or only recommended for the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ or ʿumra [ q.vv.]. The muṭawwifs also cater very completely for the physical welfare of the pilgrims. As soon a…

, “those of the cave”. This is the name given in the Ḳurʾān, and further in Arabic literature, to the youths who in the Christian Occident are usually called the “Seven Sleepers of Ephesus”. According to a legend, in the time of the Christian persecution under the Emperor Decius (249-51), seven Christian youths fled into a cave near Ephesus and there sank into a miraculous sleep for centuries, awoke under the Christian Emperor Theodosius, were discovered and then went to sleep for ever. Their re…

, Meccan pilgrims’ guide. The word literally means one who leads the ṭawāf [q. v.]. The task of the muṭawwif is however by no means limited to assisting pilgrims from foreign lands, who entrust themselves to their guidance, to go through the ceremonies required at the circumambulation of the Kaʿba. On the contrary they act as guides at the saʿy also and at all other ceremonies which are prescribed or only recommended for the ḥad̲j̲di or ʿumra [q. v.]. The muṭawwifs also cater very completely for the physical welfare of the pilgrims. As soon as the pilgrims arrive in Ḏj̲…

Abu ’l-Faḍl (according to others Abū ʿAbd allāh or Abū d̲j̲aʿfar) Muḥammad b. Ṭaifūr al-G̲h̲aznawī, reader of the Ḳorʾān, died about 560=11164/5. While he also occupied himself with Ḳorʾān exegesis and grammar, he is mainly known by his works on the recitation of the Ḳorʾān. At quite an early period a beginning was made with distinguishing different kinds of pauses in reciting the Ḳorʾān [see the article ḳirāʾa]. Al-Sad̲j̲āwandl further developed the system in his work on this subject entitled Kitāb al-Waḳf wa’l-Ibtidāʾ. He divided the possibilities of allowing a pause to int…

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Yaḥyā b. Zaid b. Saiyār (or: Yasār) al-S̲h̲aibānī (= Mawlā of the Banū S̲h̲aibān), an Arab grammarian, although regarded as of the “Kūfa” school (see below), spent his life in Bag̲h̲dād. Born in 200 (815), at the age of 16 he began to devote himself to the study of the Arabic language. Abū ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Aʿrābī, al-Zubair b. Bakkār were among his teachers. He also studied with great enthusiasm the works of al-Kisāʾī and especially of al-Farrāʾ; he is said to have known all the lat…

, Abū Ḏj̲aʿfar Mūḥammad b. Ḏj̲arīr, the Arab historian, was born probably in 839 (end of 224 or beg. 225 a. h.) at Āmul in the province of Ṭabaristān. He began to devote himself to study at a precociously early age, and is said to have known the Ḳurʾān by heart by the time he was seven. After receiving his early education in his native town, he received from his father who was quite well off the necessary means of visiting the centres of the Muslim learned world. He thus visited Raiy and its vicinity, then Bag̲h̲dād…

, two methods of reasoning much discussed in the books on the Uṣūl al-Fiḳh [q. v.] in connection with the doctrine of ḳiyās [q. v.]. The two conceptions as a result of their close relationship are sometimes confused (cf. S̲h̲āṭibī, iv. 116—118 5 Ibn Taimīya, v. 22). But no one ever seems to have reached a clear and lucid definition of their mutual relationship. 1. The authorities for istiḥsān which the followers of this method quote from the Ḳurʾān (xxxix. 19, 56), Ḥadīt̲h̲. ( mā raʾāhu ’l-muslimūn ḥasanan fa-huwa ʿinda ’llāhi ḥasanun) and id̲j̲māʿ (going to the bath without previous ar…

(a.), originally means quite generally interpretation, exposition. In some of the passages in which the word occurs in the Ḳurʾān it refers definitely to the revelation delivered by Muḥammad. The use of the word taʾwīl afterwards became more and more limited to this special meaning and it meant exposition of the Ḳurʾān, and was for a time synonymous with tafsīr. In time the term seems to have become more specialised although not yet confined to this one meaning; it became a technical term for the exposition of the subject matter of the Ḳurʾān. In this latter sense taʾwīl formed a valuable a…

, Abū ʿAlī al-Muḥassin, an Arab writer, was born in 939 or (according to Yāḳūt) in 940—941 a. d., the son of a learned ḳāḍī in Baṣra, and received his early education ¶ there, from al-Ṣūlī [q. v.] and Abu ’l-Farad̲j̲ al-Iṣfahānī [q.v.] and others. He chose a judicial career and rose to be ḳāḍī, first in Bag̲h̲dād and then in Ahwāz; as a result of a change in the vizierate in Bag̲h̲dād his office was taken from him in 969—970 and his property confiscated. He was not allowed to follow his profession for three years.” During this…

Sirād̲j̲ al-Dīn Abū Ṭāhir Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Ras̲h̲īd, jurist, belonging to the Hanaft school and flourishing about the year 1200 a. d. His Kitāb al-Farāʾiḍ, known as al-Farāʾiḍ al-Sirād̲j̲īya or briefly al-Sirād̲j̲īya, which deals with the law of inheritance, is celebrated and widely used and regarded as the principal work on this field. The author himself was the first to write a commentary on it and since then it has been frequently edited and annotated by other scholars down to the present time, sometimes also in Turkish and Persian. (R. Paret) Bibliography Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḵ…

b. ʿĀdiyā, more accurately al-Samawʾal b. G̲h̲arīḍ b. ʿĀdiyā, a Jewish-Arab poet, whose residence was in the strong castle of al-Ablaḳ [q.v.] near Taimāʾ. Being a contemporary of Imruʾ al-Ḳais [q. v.] he must have flourished about the middle of the sixth century a. d. One of his grandsons is said to have adopted ¶ Islām and to have lived into the Caliphate of Muʿāwiya when he was then very old. Except his name there is hardly a trace in tradition of his being a Jew; it is not even certain that he was of Jewish descent. All the poems ascribed to al-Samawʾal have been collected by Cheikho in …

, an epithet of Muḥammad in the Ḳurʾān, connected in some way with the word umma [q. v.]. It does not seem however to be a direct derivative, as it only appears after the Hid̲j̲ra and has a different meaning from umma, which is already common in the period before the Hid̲j̲ra. In Sūra iii. 19, Muḥammad invites the ahl al-kitāb and the ummīs to adopt Islām ( ḳul li ’llad̲h̲īna ūtu ’l-kitāb wa ’l-ummīyīn...). Ummīyūn here means “heathen”, as it does in the same Sūra, verse 69, where the word is put with this meaning into the mouths of the ahl al-kitāb. The latter passage makes it probable that ummī or ummīy…

, “the little pilgrimage”. 1. The ceremonies of the (Muslim) ʿumra. The ʿumra, like the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ [q. v.], can only be performed in a state of ritual purity ( iḥrām [q.v.]). On assuming the iḥrām, the pilgrim ( muʿtamir) must make up his mind whether he is going to perform the ʿumra by itself or in combination with the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ and express his intention in an appropriate nīya [q. v.]. If he combines the ʿumra with the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ (see below) he can assume the iḥrām for both pilgrimages at once; in the other case the iḥrām must be specially assumed for the ʿumra in the unconsecrated area ( ḥill) outs…

, of the Ḥimyarite royal line, played a part in Arabian history in the expulsion of the Abyssinians from South Arabia, where they had held sway since the time of Ḏh̲ū Nuwās. Native tradition records that he first sought assistance against the foreign yoke of the Abyssinians at the Byzantine court and later at the court of the Persian Ḵh̲usraw. The latter, however, would not risk anything in an enterprise with such hopeless prospects; so he only gave Saif a number of criminals out of the jails un…