(a.). Inheritance (pl. mawārīt̲h̲ ) ; wārit̲h̲ the heir, mūrit̲h̲ the person leaving the estate. This branch of Islamic law is also called ʿilm al-farāʾiḍ “the science of the ordained quotas” (cf. sūra IV, II) after its most important and most difficult part. 1. In pre-modern times i. In keeping with the patriarchal system prevailing among the Arabs, the estate of a deceased tribesman went ab intestato to the nearest male relative(s); the order of succession in which these relatives, the socalled ʿaṣaba (corresponding to agnati ), were called upon to inherit…

(old Anglicised spelling Meerut), (i) a district in the modern province of Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, immediately to the north-east of Dihlī, and entirely within the D̲j̲amnā-Ganges dōʾāb . Its principal towns are Mīrat́h city itself; Sardhānā (the chief residence of the Begam Samrū, widow of the adventurer Walter Reinhardt called “Sombre”; see samrū ); G̲h̲āzīābād; Baŕnāwā; and Hāpur, an important grain market, (ii) Mīrat́h city (29°0′N., 77°43′E.), a town of considerable antiquity. The city was the site of a pillar of As̲h̲oka, one of the two taken by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh th…

[see mīrāt̲h̲ ].

[see mīrāt̲h̲ ].

[see mīrāt̲h̲ ]

[see mīrat́h ].

[see mïrāt̲h̲ ].

, Enīs Behīd̲j̲ , modern Turkish ¶ orthography Eni̇s Behi̇ç Koryürek , Turkish poet (1891-1949). Born in Istanbul, the son of an army doctor, he attended schools in Salonica, Üsküb (Skopje) and Istanbul and graduated from the School of Political Science ( Mekteb-i mülkiyye ) in 1913. He served as a diplomat in Bucarest (1915) and Budapest (1916-22) and as a civil servant in various ministries. He died in Ankara on 18 October 1949. Like most poets of his generation, Enīs Behīd̲j̲ wrote poems in the style and manner of the T̲h̲erwet-i fünūn school [ q.v.] and of its extension, the Fed̲j̲r-i ātī [ q.…

, a town, also the centre of a taḥṣīl , in the Meerut [see mīrat́h ] District of northwestern India, now in the Uttar Pradesh State of the Indian Union. The town is situated in lat. 29° 09′ N., long. 77° 36′ E. and lies some 19 km/12 miles to the northwest of Meerut town. ¶ It achieved fame in the later 18th century, when Walter Reinhardt, called Sombre or Samrū, of Luxemburg origin, after having been a mercenary in both French and British service, received from Mīrzā Nad̲j̲af K̲h̲ān, general of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor S̲h̲āh ʿĀlam II [ q.v.], the pargana [ q.v.] of Sardhanā [ q.v.]. This became, after …

, also Hindūstānī , Hindostāni , is or has been used in India, confusingly, to mean at least three different forms of language, the first two of which are common. i.—As a synonym for Urdū [ q.v.] as spoken in North India; i.e., the Muslim speech of Hindustān as opposed to the Deccan; antonym Dakhnī. ii.—As a name for that speech which is the common denominator of Urdū and Hindī [ q.v.], coloured neither by recondite loanwords from Persian nor by loanwords from Sanskrit: the sort of language in which a Muslim villager might converse with a Hindū villager, and vice versa; in this sense, also the …

(a.), plural of farīḍa [see farḍ ], literally “appointed or obligatory portions”, is the technical term for the fixed shares in an estate (½, ¼, ⅓, ⅛, ⅔ and 1/16) which are given to certain heirs, who are called d̲h̲awu ’l-farāʾiḍ or aṣḥāb al-farāʾiḍ , on the basis of Ḳurʾān, IV, 11-2 and 176. These Ḳurʾānic enactments aim at modifying a system of purely agnatic succession, under which only men can inherit, in favour of the nearest female relatives (including half-brothers on the mother’s side), the spouse, and also the father (who is protected against ¶ being excluded by existing male de…

, Iskāfī (a., pl. asākifa ), “shoemaker”, the tradesman who in pre-modern Islamic times produced ordinary shoes ( k̲h̲uff , pl. k̲h̲ifāf ), nailed boots used by the common people ( lālaka , pl. lawālik ) and also s̲h̲amus̲h̲kāt (sing. s̲h̲amus̲h̲k ), a type of boots of Coptic Arab origin (cf. al-Subkī, Ṭabaḳāt al-s̲h̲āfiʿiyya , Cairo 1966, 360). The shoemakers’ use of leather gave rise ¶ to a proverbial expression bayt al-iskāf “the shoemaker’s house” which looked like a “house of hides” because of the pieces of leather everywhere. Like other …

, a city of northern India in the uppermost part of the Ganges-D̲j̲amnā Doʾāb (lat. 29° 57′ N., long. 77° 33′ E.), now in the extreme northwestern tip of the Uttar Pradesh State of the Indian Union. It was founded in ca. 740/1340, in the reign of Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ [ q.v.] and was named after a local Muslim saint, S̲h̲āh Haran Čis̲h̲tī. The city and district suffered severely during the invasion of Tīmūr; in 932/1526 Bābur traversed them on his way to Pānīpat, and some local Mug̲h̲al colonies trace their origin to his followers. Muslim influe…

, Memdūḥ S̲h̲ewket , modern Turkish Memduh Şevket Esendal , Turkish short story writer and politician (1883-1952). He was born in Corlu in Eastern Thrace, the son of Kahyabeyog̲h̲lu S̲h̲ewket, a modest farmer of an immigrant ( göčmen ) Turkish family from the Balkans. He did not have any regular schooling but was self-taught; then when his father died in 1907, he looked after the family until 1912 when the Balkan War broke out and the family moved to Istanbul. He had joined the Committee of Union and Progress (…

, a Ṣūfī order introduced into India by S̲h̲āh ʿAbd Allāh (d. 890/1485), a descendant of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī [ q.v.]. On reaching India, S̲h̲āh ʿAbd Allāh undertook a lightning tour of the country. Himself clad in royal dress, the disciples accompanying him wore military garb, carried banners and announced his arrival by the beat of drums. In his Laṭāʾif-i g̲h̲aybiyya he explained the basic principles of S̲h̲aṭṭārī discipline, which he considered to be the quickest way to attain gnosis. S̲h̲āh ʿAbd Allah settled at Mānd́ū [ q.v.] where he set up the first S̲h̲aṭṭārī k̲h̲ā…

, S̲h̲irka (a.), nouns with a basic meaning of “partnership, association” (see Lane, Lexicon , s.v.) hence from the same root as the theological term s̲h̲irk [ q.v.] “associating other gods with God”, hence polytheism, and s̲h̲arīk , pl. s̲h̲urakāʾ “partner associated in divinity”, both frequent in the Ḳurʾān. As a term of Islamic law, it takes different forms according to the contents and conditions. According to al-Azharī, it signifies the mixing ( k̲h̲alṭ ) of two or more assets ( māl ) together with the permission of each partner that the other can trade with it. S̲h̲arika …

(a.), in Islamic law, bequest, last will and testament. In fiḳh , waṣiyya refers to two related notions: (1) that of bequest or legacy (defined as the transfer of the corpus or the usufruct ( manfaʿa ) of a thing after one’s death without a consideration); and (2) that of appointing a testamentary executor or guardian over minor children. The term waṣiyya is sometimes translated as last will or testament, since for both legal acts a testamentary disposition is required. 1. Historical background Several Ḳurʾānic verses mention or refer to bequests. From XXXVI, 50, it appears th…

, Muḥammad Ibrāhīm S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ , Urdū poet b. Dihlī 11 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1204/18 December 1790 (so Āzād; in 1203 according to a contemporary Calcutta newspaper, cf. Nawā-i Adab , 45), the only son of S̲h̲. Muḥammad Ramaḍān, a trusted servant of Nawwāb Luṭf ʿAlī K̲h̲ān of Dihlī. His early schooling in Persian and Arabic was in the mosque-school of Ḥāfiẓ G̲h̲ulām Rasūl S̲h̲awḳ, a poet and a pupil of S̲h̲āh Naṣīr (S̲h̲eftā, 150), who inspired the young learner with a love for reading and writing poetry…

(a.), transport. 1. In the central Islamic lands and North Africa. See for this ʿaraba ; barīd ; d̲j̲āmūs in Suppl.; faras ; fīl ; ibil ; kārwān ; k̲h̲ān ; mawākib ; milāḥa ; safīna ; tid̲j̲āra . 2. In India. Travel on foot is obviously such an everyday occurrence between village and village that it receives scant mention in the texts; pilgrimages might be made on foot entirely, for pietistic reasons, such as Akbar’s to the tomb of Muʿīn al-Dīn Čis̲h̲tī from Āgrā to Ad̲j̲mēr, but generally foot-journeys are the accompaniment to a baggag…

, one of the most significant institutions of Muslim penal law as regards both the origins and the sociological evolution of that law. The term ʿāḳila , pl. ʿawāḳil , denotes, as its etymology ¶ would suggest, the group of persons upon whom devolves, as the result of a natural joint liability with the person who has committed homicide or inflicted bodily harm, the payment of compensation in cash or in kind. This compensation is called diya [ q.v.], ʿaḳl , pl. ʿuḳūl , and also maʿḳula , pl. maʿāḳil , from a root meaning "to bind, shackle": the Arab lexicographers…