, al-Muwaffaḳ b. ʿAbd Allāh al-ʿĀmiri , Abu ’l-D̲j̲ays̲h̲, ruler of Denia (Dāniya [ q.v.]) and the Balearics from early 405/late 1014 until 436/1044-5. Mud̲j̲āhid was a “Slav” (a. ṣaḳlabī [ q.v.]), bought, converted to Islam (his patronymic “b. ʿAbd Allāh” represents a semi-legal formality, not his real father) and given an education by al-Manṣūr Muḥammad b. Abī ʿĀmir [ q.v.], the great ḥād̲j̲ib [ q.v.] of His̲h̲ām II [ q.v.] al-Muʾayyad, the third Umayyad caliph in al-Andalus [ q.v.] at the end of the 4th/10th century. He entered the service of the ʿĀmirids, and may have …

[see rasūl , banū ].

(a.), the active participle of the form III verb d̲j̲āhada “to strive” (of which the verbal noun is d̲j̲ihād [ q.v.]), hence acquiring the technical religious meaning of “fighter for the faith, one who wages war against the unbelievers.” 1. In classical legal theory and in early Islam. See for this d̲j̲ihād. 2. In Muslim Indian usage. In the subcontinent, the term mud̲j̲āhid has been associated with Islamic revivalist movements there, and especially with the more militant ones which arose from the late 18th century onwards in response…

Aḥmad b. Mūsā b. al-ʿAbbās Abū Bakr al-Tamīmī (245/859-324/936), was born in Bag̲h̲dād and seems to have spent his life there. He is noted for his study of the various Ḳurʾān readings, for the large number of pupils who attended his classes, and for writing the first book on the seven Ḳurʾān readings. Al-K̲h̲aṭīb al-Bag̲h̲dādī calls him a reliable authority ( t̲h̲iḳa maʾmūn ), and quotes a statement made in 286/899 by the grammarian Arimad b. Yaḥyā to the effect that at that time no one knew more about the Ḳurʾān than Abū Bakr Ibn Mud̲…

, Abu l-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ , a Successor, born 21/642, died between 100/718 and 104/722 in Mecca, mawla of al-Sāʾib (or ʿAbd Allāh or Ḳays) b. Abi ’l-Sāʾib al-Mak̲h̲zūmī. Famed as a muḳriʾ and as a source of tafsīr , he is connected to the school of ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbbās [ q.v.], but is said to have studied with many other companions as well (al-D̲h̲ahabī, Ṭabaḳāt al-mufassirīn , ii, 306). A report is found that he read the Ḳurʾān with Ibn ʿAbbās three times, stopping each time after each verse and asking about its interpretation, specificall…

b. Kulayb al-S̲h̲aybānī al-Kūfī, Abū Bis̲h̲r, Ḳurʾān interpreter and traditionist who lived in al-Madāʾin and died ca. 160/776. He is said to have been orthodox ( ṣāḥib sunna ) as well ¶ as a Murd̲j̲iʾī. His tafsīr is reported to have been preferred by, amongst others, Yaḥyā b. Maʿīn and Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal [ q.vv.], this tafsīr being one of the three recensions of the Ibn Abī Nad̲j̲īḥ transmission of the tafsīr tradition that was started by Mud̲j̲āhid b. D̲j̲abr [ q.v.]. His recension, which is preserved in the Cairo Dār al-Kutub ms. 1075 tafsīr, is related to the other two but often shows …

(al-Malik al-Ẓāfir Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn) founded in Yemen the dynasty of the Banū Ṭāhir, after the fall of that of the Rasūlids about the year 855/1451 in conjunction with his brother ʿAlī (al-Malik al-Mud̲j̲āhid S̲h̲ams al-Din). He lost his life during an unsuccessful attempt to capture the town of Ṣanʿāʾ in 870/1466. Bibliography see the following art. ¶

, Abū Maʿbad (or Abū Bakr ) ʿAbd Allāh b. Kat̲h̲īr al-Dārānī al-Makkī , one of the “seven readers” [see ḳirāʾa ] of the Ḳurʾān. Born at Mecca, in 45/665, in a family of Iranian origin which had emigrated to the Yemen, he was a mawlā of ʿAmr b. ʿAlḳama al-Kinānī. He followed the trade of dealer in perfumes ( ʿaṭṭār , in the Ḥid̲j̲āz: dārānī ). His authorities were the Companion ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Sāʾib, Mud̲j̲āhid and Dirbās. His direct pupils were Ibn Abī Bazzā, or Bazzī, and Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Mak̲h̲zūmī, called Ḳunbul. Both of …

, abū muḥammad sulaymān b. mihrān , traditionist and Ḳurʾān "reader". Born in 60/679-680, or 10 Muḥarram 61/10 October 681, of a Persian father, he lived at al-Kūfa and died probably in Rabīʿ I 148/May 765. He received traditions from al-Zuhrī and Anas b. Mālik, and his instructors in ḳirāʾa , were: Mud̲j̲āhid, al-Nak̲h̲aʿī, Yaḥyā b. Wat̲h̲t̲h̲āb, ʿĀṣim; Ḥamza was his disciple. His "reading", which followed the tradition of Ibn Masʿūd and Ubayy, appeared in the list of "the fourteen". A great admirer of ʿAlī, he is supposed to have furnished the poet al-Sayyid al-Ḥimyarī [ q.v.] with the m…

, pl. fityān , strictly “young man”, has assumed a certain number of meanings in Arabic [see futuwwa ]: here we confine ourselves to one exclusively Andalusian usage. In Muslim Spain the slaves, whether eunuchs or not, employed in the service of the prince and his household, and then of the ḥād̲j̲ib [ q.v.] at the time when the latter was in practice taking over the reins of power, were in fact called g̲h̲ilmān (sing, g̲h̲ulām [ q.v.]), whilst those who held an elevated rank in the palace hierarchy bore the title fatā , the entire management of the household being …

, the descendants (and clients of al-Manṣūr b. Abī ʿAmir [ q.v.], in the first place his sons ʿAbd al-Malik and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān [ qq.v.]. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Manṣūr, a son of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, founded the dynasty of the ʿĀmirids in Valencia, where he ruled 412-53/1021-61. He was succeeded by his son ʿAbd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar [ q.v.], 453-7/1061-5. After a ten years’ interval under al-Maʾmūn of Toledo, ʿAbd al-Malik’s brother, Abū Bakr b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz, ¶ ruled in Valencia 468-78/1075-85. In this last year the city was wrested from Abū Bakr’s son, the ḳāḍī …

( S̲h̲anbūd̲h̲ , S̲h̲annabūd̲h̲ ), Abu ’l-Ḥasan Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ayyūb b. al-Ṣalt al-Bag̲h̲dādī , widely travelled and learned ¶ “reader” of the Ḳurʾān and teacher of Ḳurʾānic reading, died Ṣafar 328/November-December 939, introduced in the public prayer ( fi ’l-miḥrāb ) readings of Ibn Masʿud, Ubay and others which varied from ʿUt̲h̲mān’s recension; for this, perhaps at the instigaion of his influential colleague Ibn Mud̲j̲āhid (whom he detested), he was brought to trial in 323/935 before a special court presi…

is the name of various Muslim monarchs in India. The most notable are: 1. aḥmad s̲h̲āh bahādur mud̲j̲āhid al-dīn abū naṣr , son and successor of Muḥammad S̲h̲āh, Grand Mug̲h̲al of Delhi. He was born in 1138/1725 and came to the throne in 1161/1748. The actual ruler during his reign was Ṣafdar Ḏj̲ang, Nawāb of Oudh, who was also appointed vizier of the new emperor. In order to check the Rohēlas he called upon the Marāṭhās for help, which resulted in their plundering the provinces of his realm, w…

, town in Uttar Pradesh (India), situated in Lat. 25° 28′ N and Long. 80° 20′ E; headquarters of the district of the same name. Pop. (1951) 30,327. The town, otherwise unimportant, attracted notice during the Sepoy Revolt of 1857 when its last ruler, Nawāb ʿAlī Bahādur II, put up a hard fight against the British. The town, however, finally surrendered in April 1858. A mere village till the end of the 12th/18th century, it began rapidly to expand when S…

, one of the seven canonical Ḳurʾān “readers” who was born in Medina and died there in 169/785 (other dates between 150/767 and 170/786 are also mentioned in biographies). He is reported to have studied with 70 of the tābiʿūn in Medina. He transmitted one of the seven Ḳurʾān readings [see Ḳirāʾa ] which were recognised by Ibn Mud̲j̲āhid [ q.v.]. Two of his pupils, Wars̲h̲ (d. 197/812) and Ḳālūn (d. 220/835), are recognised as the main transmitters of his reading. The transmission of the Ḳurʾān from Wars̲h̲ on the authority of Nāfīʿ is still used in the M…

, the name of a river and its valley in the northeastern part of Afg̲h̲ānistān. The river flows southwards from the Hindū Kus̲h̲ [ q.v.] and joins the Kābul River at Sarobi, and near this point a barrage was constructed in the 1950s to supply water for Kābul. The Pand̲j̲hīr valley has always been important as a corridor for nomads who winter in the Lāmg̲h̲ānāt-D̲j̲alālābād [ q.vv.] regions and then travel to summer pastures in Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān [ q.v.]. In mediaeval Islamic times, Pand̲j̲hīr was a famed centre for silver mining [see maʿdin at V, 964, 967, 968 for details], and coins were…

(“the manufacturer of string from palm-fibre”, s̲h̲rīṭ ), Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. ʿAys̲h̲ūn , son of a mud̲j̲āhid , slain in battle which the Spaniards at al-Maʿmūra (al-Mahdiyya = San Miguel de Ultramar) was born at Fās in 1035/1625-6 and died there in 1109/1697 after having adopted Ṣūfism. He is credited with the authorship of a hagiographical collection, but this has sometimes been disputed by his compatriots; this is al-Rawḍ al-ʿāṭir al-anfās bi-ak̲h̲bār al-ṣāliḥīn min ahl Fās . According to al-Kattānī, it was really the work of Muḥa…

, reading. Applied to the Ḳurʾān, ḳirāʾa also means recitation . In the present article the term ḳirāʾa is used as follows: 1. in the general sense of the recitation (a) of single parts of the Ḳurʾān, as prescribed for the ritual prayer ( ṣalāt ), or the recitation (b) of the entire Ḳurʾān, which has become, in the course of years, an accepted spiritual exercise ( ḳirāʾa = recitation) ; 2. to indicate a special reading of a word or of a single passage of the Ḳurʾān ( ḳirāʾa, pl. ḳirāʾat = variant); 3. to indicate a particular reading of the entire Ḳurʾān ( ḳirāʾa = reading). In the third case one s…

, Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Ṣāliḥ b. Muḥammad , a leading Bosnian Muslim and Arabic author who was born in Saray Bosna about 1909. He received his early education in Bosnia, and his higher education at al-Azhar in Cairo, where he was admitted to the degree of al-ʿālimiyya . After this he performed the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ with his father, and returned to his native country to teach. He belonged to the Ḥanafī mad̲h̲hab , and followed the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya in fiḳh . He died at Saray Bosna on 29 July, 1944. During his short literary career he contributed both to the intemational literature of…

(759-76/1358-75), the second king of the Bahmanī dynasty of the Dakan, was the eldest son of Ḥasan, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Bahman S̲h̲āh, usually, but incorrectly, styled Ḥasan Gangū. On succeeding his father, on 1 Rabīʿ I 759/11 February 1358, he carefully organised the government of the four provinces of the kingdom and the administration of the army. The pertinacity of the Hindū bankers and moneychangers in melting down the gold coinage which he introduced led to a general massacre of the community and…