Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online

Dadishoʻ I was bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and head of the Church of the East (he is often called the “first catholicos”, though that title and the use of the term “patriarch” seem to arise later). Nothing of Dadishoʻ’s theological positions or of what he thought of the controversies around Nestorius is known. His only writings, commentaries on some Old Testament books that seem to have been uncontroversial, are lost. Dadishoʻ is known only through the controversies of his time and the councils they produced.All the councils (Councils/Synods) of the early 5th-century CE chu…

Dalmatia was a province of the Roman and early Byzantine empires, located on the eastern Adriatic coast and its deeper hinterland. It roughly comprised central and southern parts of modern-day Croatia, the whole of Herzegovina, and Bosnia except for the most northern parts. The territory of modern Albania, western Serbia, and Montenegro initially belonged to Dalmatia, until the Diocletian’s reforms in 297 CE. After that, only the western parts of Montenegro remained within this province. …

Damasus (366–384 CE; feast day Dec 11) is the first bishop to emerge from the scarce historical documentation of the first 300 years of the church in Rome with a strong profile, an ambitious program, and a momentous religious, political, and cultural legacy. His rough-and-tumble pontificate is a milestone in the post-Constantinian rise of the Roman bishop and the primacy of the see of Rome.The written output of the bishop covers unusual fields: instead of theological treatises, apologetic works, sermons, and letters, Damasus produced synodal encyclicals an…

Depictions of the biblical Daniel featured prominently in early Christian art. Daniel represented the resolute martyr (Martyrs) who accepted a sentence of death rather than succumbing to idolatry (Dan 6) and as such prefigured the steadfast Christian whose stanch faith would be rewarded in the next life. The story of Daniel’s captivity, endurance, and unwavering witness shared elements with Christian martyr narratives, not least in the fact that Daniel’s fate – being condemned to the bea…

David is a central figure in much of early Christian literature. He is the youthful shepherd, destroyer of the evil Goliath, singer of songs, prototypical king, prophet, and ancestor of Jesus. Both the New Testament Gospels and Epistles proclaimed Jesus to be descended from the line of David, specifically through the line of Mary or Joseph (e.g. Rom 1:3; 2 Tim 2:8; Matt 1:1; Mark 10:47; Luke 1:27; John 7:42; Rev 22:16). This lineage continued to be emphasized by the next generation of Christian teachers (e.g. Ign. Eph. 18.2). Based upon this foundation, subsequent Christian write…

In classical Greek we find the first attestations of the word diakonos in the writings of Plato . The word is used differently in some of Plato’s writings such as in De republica (369–371 CE), Politicus (289–299 CE), and Gorgias (517–521 CE) and the use of the word in different contexts has influenced the variety of meanings of the word. However, there is a common denominator: a diakonos renders a service on commission (Collins, 1990, 77–89; see also Hentschel, 2007, 433–444).Although it has often been emphasized since the appearance of H.W. Beyer’s entry in G. Kittel’s Theologisches Wörte…

The period in which Christianity emerged was a time of change and exchange in practices of caring for the dead. Multiple practices flourished side by side, sometimes even within the same ethnic and national groups, and ways of caring for the dead fell in and out of fashion over time. As traditional religious practices commonly known as paganism were beset by incursions from eastern religions, traditional burial practices changed from burial to cremation and back again, and groups like Jew…

The overarching term “cult of the dead” can mean different things, including reverence for ancestors or their deification, but also ritual activities centered around remembering and celebrating deceased family members. Traditionally in the Roman Empire, families commemorating their deceased loved ones would visit the tomb during annual festivals such as the Parentalia, Lemuria, and Rosalia, as well as on the 9th and 13th day after burial and annually on the deceased’s date of death. Patterns of commemoration appear to have been widely shared amon…

All major cultures surrounding the Mediterranean basin developed some conception of a special realm inhabited only by the dead. The two cultures that most deeply seeded early Christian conceptions of the afterlife – Greek and Jewish – had varied afterlife beliefs; Egypt, too, with its distinct concept of a solar-based journey to the netherworld, influenced Mediterranean Christian ideas of a realm of the dead. Each of these cultures contributed elements to the development of Christian not…

The term “Dead Sea Scrolls” refers to manuscripts that have been discovered since 1947 in the Judean wilderness. Manuscript discoveries have been made at several sites, from Wadi Daliyeh, 14 km north of Jericho, to Masada, near the southern end of the Dead Sea. The overwhelming majority of the manuscript remains are of Jewish texts from the 4th century BCE up to and including the Second Jewish Revolt (132–136 CE). At most sites, documentary texts outnumber literary texts; but the greates…

As in ancient culture in general, death in early Christianity appears as an anthropological constant and as the last threat to human life. Death can be understood as a termination of all (human) relationships; however, the belief in the resurrection of Jesus Christ decisively changed the perspective of the first Christians toward death.The New Testament uses the Greek term θάνατος (“death”) to denote the end of physical life and the corresponding verb, ἀποθνῄσκω (“to die”). The one who died is called a “dead man” (νεκρός); the dead body is also referred to by the term σῶμα/ s ō ma. If the d…

De bono pudicitiae ( On the Benefit of Purity) is a 3rd-century CE moral treatise, generally agreed to have been written by the Roman priest and schismatic Novatian. It exists in several manuscripts, all of which are anonymous except for one that is mistakenly attributed to Cyprian of Carthage (DeSimone, 1974, 160). Novatian’s schism probably ensured that his writings could only survive anonymously or under another name. We do know that Novatian’s major work, De Trinitate, circulated under the names of Tertullian and Cyprian (Papandrea, 2011, 122). However, similariti…

The Decapolis was a group of Greco-Roman cities in present-day northern Jordan, southern Syria, and Israel (see Bietenhard, 1977; Lichtenberger, 2003). Although the term implies that in total it were ten cities, a varying number belonged to the group. Most often listed by ancient sources are Damascus (Dimashq), Gadara (Umm Qeis), Hippos (Sussita), Abila (Queilbeh), Canatha (Qanawat), Dion (Tell el-Ashari), Nysa-Scythopolis (Beth Shean), Pella (Tabaqat Fahil), Gerasa (Jerash), and Philadel…

Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Valerinus (d. 251 CE) became emperor in October 249 CE after defeating his predecessor Philip the Arab (244–249 CE) at Verona, taking the name Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius. Throughout his brief reign, the empire faced foreign incursions from the Goths and the Carpi in the Balkans, and Decius spent nearly all of his time as emperor back in the region of his birth defending the frontier and trying to repel the invaders. It was in the Balkans in the middle of 251 CE that Decius died fighting the Goths under Kniva.The 50 years between the death of Alexand…

The Decretum Gelasianum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis (text in Dobschütz, 1912) is a document of an anonymous author, attributed to Pope Gelasius I (492–496 CE: see Taylor, 1974–1975; Bratož, 1999; 2000; Neil & Allen, 2014) but is posterior and may be dated to the 6th century CE: it may have been written in southern Gaul or northern Italy by a layperson or perhaps a member of the clergy (see Leclercq, 1924, 735–758; Schwartz, 1930).StructureThe document is made up of five separate chapters (see Kleinhans, 1950; Pietri, 1976). The first chapter speaks about …

In 338 CE a short time after the death of Emperor Constantine, the new emperor of the West, Constantine II permitted Athanasius of Alexandria to return from his exile in Trier to Alexandria (DGAS no. 41.1 introduction).Having returned from exile, Athanasius assembled a synod (Councils/Synods) of 80 Egyptian bishops in Alexandria. This synod voted for Athanasius. This synod sent a circular to all bishops (Bishop [Episcopos]) with many documents (Athan. Apol. sec. 3–19).The eastern bishops around Eusebius of Constantinople, who had deposed and excommunicated Athana…

Deer appear most frequently in late ancient Christian discourse in one of three ways: as representatives of pastoral calm, as figures of the hunt, and as the archenemy of venomous snakes and scorpions. The imagery offered by these tropes gave early Christians fertile material for offering spiritual exhortation, lifting up moral exemplars, and creatively crafting imagery for Christ and God.Deer as Pastoral SymbolsAs the centerpiece of pastoral scenes, deer allow Christian authors to link piety with peaceful, noble, and verdant images from the natural worl…

The De excidio Hierosolymitano ( On the Ruin of Jerusalem) is a heavily Christianized Latin retelling of Flavius Josephus’ Bellum Judaicum ( Jewish War), written around 368–375 CE. Often attributed to Josephus until the mid-9th century CE and beyond, it is usually anachronistically known today as the Pseud0-Hegesippus (Hegesippus), a sobriquet that was invented around 830 CE.ContentsWhile the De excidio Hierosolymitano is often taken as a paraphrase or quasi-translation of Josephus’ Bellum Judaicum, in truth it reshapes Josephus’ narrative into a work of bald Chris…

A short Greek treatise (Gk Περὶ τῶν τῆς Ἰνδίας ἐθνῶν καὶ τῶν Βραγμάνων) on the lifestyle of the Brahmanical community, attributed to Palladius, bishop of Helenopolis (363–431 CE). This attribution was in the past seen as controversial (Derrett, 1960), but Palladius has now definitively been proven to be the author, as evidenced for example by the fact that the text appears in several manuscripts as an appendix to the Historia Lausiaca.The treatise circulated as an independent text, but it was also interpolated in the Alexander Romance by Pseudo-Callisthenes: we find it in the A…

Delphinus was bishop of Bordeaux between 380 and 404 CE. He was a friend of Febadius of Agen and had correspondence with Ambrose of Milan ( Epist. 87; Laudat Polybium: Cuius rogatu se binas ad Segatium et Delphinum epistolas scripsisse significat; PL, vol. XVI, 1339–1340. Delphinus baptized (see Paul. Ep. 3 in Hartle, 1894a, 17, ll. 2–3) Paulinus of Nola in 389 CE. Five letters dated between 393 and 401 CE written by Paulinus to Delphinus were handed on to us, the letters number 10 (CSEL, vol. XXIX, 57–60), 14 (CSEL, vol. XXIX, 107–110), 1…

Demetrian was elected bishop of Antioch in 253 CE in succession to Fabian (see Eus. Hist. eccl. 6.46.4 and 7.14; Chron. Olym 258.1). He actively opposed the heresy of Novatus, a rigorous heretic as regards penance (see Eus. Hist. eccl. 7.5.1; see Sisto, 1994). In 256 CE the Persians, led by King Shapur I, invaded Antioch and deported the inhabitants of various cities to Persia. Even Bishop Demetrian, together with many inhabitants of Antioch, was confined to the city of Bendoshapur/Gundaisabur (see Peeters, 1924; Chaumont, 1986,…

Demetrias was born in Rome around 398 CE. She was a descendant of the gens Anicia, who were a prominent Roman family and early converts to Christianity. Her parents were Anicia Juliana and the consul Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Probus. Her paternal grandparents were Petronius Probus, a Roman senator and praetorian prefect, and Anicia Proba Faltonia. Demetrias’ grandmother, Proba, was lauded as an ideal mother by Claudian in his panegyric to Probus and Olybrius, and she was also likely the author of a collection of biblical stories paraphrased in Virgilian verse.Demetrias’ father …

“Demon” comes from the Greek daimōn and daimonion (a substantive adjective) and refers in early Christian usage to the occasionally visible, malevolent beings who harass humans, masquerade as pagan gods, and sow destruction in the world. Early Christian demonology drew on ancient Jewish and Hellenistic thought, acquiring from the former a mythology of demonic origins and from the latter a sophisticated metaphysics of demonic corporeality. The New Testament portrayed Jesus Christ and his follower…

Deogratias (of Carthage; 454–457 CE) was one of the few Nicene bishops (Nicaea) elected to the see of Carthage during the Vandal period (429–534 CE; Vandals). He is mainly known through a few hagiographical paragraphs of Victor of Vita’s Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae (1.24–27).His date and place of birth are unknown. The rarity of his praenomen led scholars to believe that he might be the same individual mentioned in some of Augustine of Hippo’s letters and works. If this is correct, then he would have been a deacon and…

Deo laudes (“Praise God!”) is a popular acclamation used by North Africa Christians before martyrdom, after miraculous healings, during liturgy, and to express approval in ecclesiastical proceedings. The expression is found on stone inscriptions across North Africa, especially Numidia. In the 5th century CE, the phrase became associated with Donatist militants.Acclamation of MartyrsThe significance of the phrase can be traced to Augustine of Hippo, who accused Donatists (Donatism/Donatists) of introducing Deo laudes in place of another acclamation Deo gratias (“Thanks b…

Exilium (exile) is a punishment used in antiquity consisting of the expulsion of an individual from the place where he or she lives, either for a given period of time or for life, sending him or her to some concrete location or prohibiting him or her from taking up residence in given places. Due to its advantage of making a person disappear from the city without the need for taking a life, it frequently appears in episodes both in Roman history and of earlier societies, being reserved especially for socially privileged groups.Historical AntecedentsGreek civilization offers us a great d…

The depositio episcoporum is a list presenting the burial date (day, month, year) and the burial places (name of the catacomb or cemetery) of the bishops of Rome from Lucius I (d. 254 CE) to Julius I (d. 352 CE) in calendrical order from Dec 25 to Dec 24. The following bishops are listed in the roll: Lucius I (d. 254 CE), Stephen I (d. 257 CE), Dionysius (d. 268 CE), Felix (d. 274 CE), Eutychianus (d. 283 CE), Gaius (d. 296 CE), Marcellinus (d. 304 CE), Eusebius (d. 310 CE) Miltiades (d. 31…

The depositio martyrum, an early liturgical calendar compiled before 336 CE, is the oldest extant document about the cult of the Christian martyrs venerated in the Church of Rome. The list records the burial date (day, month, year) of 47 martyrs. In the case they were martyred in Rome, it also mentions their burial places in the cemeteries and catacombs situated along the great roads radiating from Rome. The list is preserved as text number 12 in the Chronograph of 354 ( Depositio episcoporum).The martyrs were the stars of early Christianity. Their death was their birthday ( natales martyru…

The dialogue De recta in Deum fide or On the Orthodox Faith in God is also known as Dialogue of Adamantius from the name of its protagonist, Adamantius, who bears the Christian byname of Origen of Alexandria. This is a mysterious and severely understudied document, which features Adamantius as a champion of the orthodox faith engaged in a discussion with “heretics” such as Marcionites, “Valentinians,” and Bardaisanites. As demonstrated by I. Ramelli (2012; 2013; forthcoming a), contrary to what has been clai…

“Devil” translates Greek διάβολος, transliterated into Latin as diabolus. Διάβολος, an adjective used as a substantive, had a specific sense in classical Greek of “slanderer,” but it came to be used in more general terms to mean “enemy,” and when used by early Christians, often with the definite article (ὁ διάβολος), it most often referred to a particular enemy, “the devil”; in writings from the New Testament onward, Christians used διάβολος alongside many other epithets and names to describe …

Of Spanish stock, Nummius Aemilianus Dexter (fl. 395 CE) was the son of Pacianus, bishop of Barcelona. Since his father became bishop in the 360s CE, Dexter was probably born before that date. He surfaces in our records as proconsul of Asia after 379 CE and is presumed to have been promoted in the wake of the accession of Theodosius I (379 CE), also of Spanish descent. If the statue erected by the province of Asia in his hometown of Barcelona (CIL, vol. II, 4512 = Fabre, Mayer & Roda, 1997…