Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online

Often regarded as the founder of cenobitic monasticism, Pachomius of Tabennese (d. 347 CE) has been a difficult subject for historians and for others interested in early Christian ascetic practice. What were his contributions to organized asceticism in Egypt? Did he invent rule-based communal monasticism in Egypt? Antony the Great appears to be a simpler problem because the Life of Antony clearly expresses the views of Athanasius of Alexandria and only a small collection of Antony’s letters survives, which provide limited information and few biographi…

Pacian of Barcelona ( Barcino) was born (4th. cent. CE) and lived in a city that positioned him to be knowledgeable of the developments in the church of the greater Mediterranean. His renown was such that even the far removed (relative to Hispania) Jerome dedicated an entry to him in his famous De viris illustribus (ch. 106), and a second reference in chapter 132. This in light of the fact that Jerome had literally dozens of potential candidates to pick from for his work on prominent men. What is significant is that this brief notice is the only…

The concept of “pagans” was developed and used by ancient Christian writers to refer to their religious others. Pagans is a concept that only exists in relation to, and in most cases in contrast with, the concept of “Christians.” Christian authors made ample use of the term “pagans,” harnessing it to the project of constructing Christianity. Pagans were used to define the confines of being Christian. Thus, the development of the concept of pagans illustrates the evolving Christian self-…

The Greek noun παιδεία/ paideia (verb: παιδεύειν/ paideuein) has a wide range of possible meanings: it encompasses, basically, all kinds of education; more specifically, teaching at school; metaphorically, receiving instruction from divine beings. Beyond processes of transmitting knowledge, paideia also refers to their results: being an “educated” or “literate man” (πεπαιδευμένος/ pepaideumenos; vir litteratus; a comprehensive overview is offered in Bloomer, 2015). Such education could also be attributed to women – Perpetua was “instructed in a liberal manner” ( liberalite…

The name Palestine is sometimes used to describe the geographic area of the eastern Mediterranean region comprising parts of modern-day Israel and the Palestinian territories of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank (for geographic usage, see Israel). The present entry will deal with the ancient usage of the term Palestine, although at times it will be necessary for comparison and explanation to juxtapose it with the geographic entity Israel.Palestine reflects the Greek form ( Palaistinē) of biblical peleshet ( Prst/Plst of ancient Egyptian texts; Pilišti/Palaštu of Assyrian sources)…

Pammachius was born around 340 CE and belonged to the important and rich Roman family of the Furii. He studied with the grammar teacher Donatus and received a solid rhetorical training. Around 370/372 CE, he was a schoolmate and youthful friend of Jerome (Jer. Ep. 48.1). At the time he met Jerome, he was already a Christian, familiar with Scripture and with Christian authors ( Ep. 48.3; 57.13). He married the Christian Paulina, the daughter of Toxotius and Paula, who, after the death of her husband, started to live a semi-monastic life. Paula was also, for …

Pancras (Lat. Pancratius) was 14 years old when he was martyred in Rome, beheaded near the Via Aurelia on May 12 (the year being given variously as 304, 293, or 257 CE; ( AASS, May, vol. III, May 12, 17; Drobner, 1988, 14–15). He was buried in a cemetery close to the clivus Rutarius, which linked Via Vitellia to Via Aurelia Vetus (Fiocchi Nicolai, 2000, 228). The site was not far from the gate in the Aurelian Walls called “Porta Aurelia,” which was renamed “ Porta Pancratiana” (Porta S. Pancrazio) after him from the 6th century CE onward (Pro. Bell. Goth. 1.18). Pancras is known from some monu…

Yeshua ben Panthera is the most ancient name attributed to Jesus in the rabbinical literature (c. 300 CE). The name “Pantera” is also known by Celsus (c. 170 CE), and several ecclesiastical authors have counted a Panthera among the ancestors of Jesus. What is the origin and historical value of this tradition?Origin of the NameIn his Against Celsus (c. 240 CE), Origen frequently mentions a certain Panthera, presented by the Greek antichristian Celsus (170 CE) as the father of Jesus. Many hypotheses have emerged to explain this name. The two most popular are the following:Firstly, Panthera…

In what follows, papal schism will be considered from two perspectives: first, as a general term describing factionalism within the Roman Church that resulted in substantial groups, typically led by rival bishops, withdrawing (or being forced to withdraw) from communion with one another; and second, to describe controversies between Rome and other Christian episcopal centers. This approach generally accepts the conventional definition of schism (Gk σχίσμα; Lat. schisma), which denotes the institutional separation of two or more internally cohesive groups caus…

Papias of Hierapolis (fl. c. 110 CE), a bishop who was active in the early 2nd century CE, authored a now lost book, the Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord, which purports to have related ancient Christian traditions, including on the origin and composition of the Gospels. Fragments from Papias’ work are preserved in quotations and summaries found in later writers, though the authenticity of many of them is disputed.LifeVery little is known about Papias, other than that he lived in the early 2nd century CE and had been a bishop of the church at Hierapolis, a …

The word “paradise” is of Old Iranian origin and probably goes back to Median * paridaiza (* indicates: reconstructed, not proven form; “enclosure”; see Bremmer, 2008, 36). It was adopted as a loanword in numerous ancient languages, for instance, as Hebrew/Aramaic pardēs, Greek παράδεισος/ paradeisos, and Latin paradisus. As particularly shown by the Elamite evidence from the Achaemenid period, the term initially denoted enclosed spaces that served very different purposes (storage places, vineyards, orchards, stables, forests, or tree nur…

This “Handing over of Pilate” presents a brief apocryphal account both of Caesar’s response to Pilate’s report concerning Jesus and of Pilate’s conversion and death (Christ, Jesus, 01: Survey; Pilate, Pontius). Upon learning from Pilate’s report that Jesus’ execution led to worldwide darkness and earthquakes, Caesar recalls Pilate to Rome. At his hearings, Pilate declares his innocence, since his action had been compelled by rebellious Jews (esp. Herod, Archelaus, Philip, Annas, and Cai…

The Greek word parousia (Lat. adventus) is an early Christian technical term denoting the coming of the Messiah (Matt 3:10–12) as well as the eschatological coming of the Son of Man or the second coming of Christ (24 times, esp. 1 Thess; 1 Cor; Matt 24; 2 Thess 2; 2 Pet 3). Synonyms are: “the day” (of God, Christ, salvation, judgment; Matt 24:42; Rom 2; 1 Thess 5:2; 2 Cor 6:2 etc.), epiphaneia (esp. Pastoral Epistles; 2 Thess 2:8), as well as apokalypsis of Christ (Rom 2:5; 8:19; 1 Cor 1:7; see Oepke, 1954; Plevnik, 1997). On the parousia of Satan, compare 2 Thess 2:9 (Mell, 2012). Parousia (from parei…

The Acta Martyrum Scillitanorum, also known as Passio Martyrum Scillitanorum, is the earliest extant non-biblical Christian Latin text, composed in Carthage and dating from the early 2nd century CE.The short text (counting merely 360 words) records the interrogation by the Roman proconsul Saturninus of a group of Christians from the African town of Scilli, apparently accused of adhering to the Christian religion. It ends with the formal death sentence as pronounced by the proconsul, a public announcement of this death sentence, and a succinct description of the actual execution.Bei…

The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity ( Martyrium vel Passio Perpetuae et Felicitatis; trans. Heffernan, 2012) is one of the earliest and most significant of the Acta Martyrum (Martyrs, Acts of the) genre. It is unique in all the Acts of the Martyrs because it contains four distinct voices – two of which claim to be autobiographical, and one of these is that of the upper-class educated woman Vibia Perpetua, whose reflections, constitute the first autobiographical memoir by a women in the West. Perpetua’s account is redolent with con…

Passover ( Pesaḥ; Pesach ) and the exodus story seem to be inseparable. The Pentateuch has connected these two traditions so intimately that only through attentive reading can the tensions and incongruities within the exodus story be discerned. Ancient authors took for granted that all references to Passover were necessarily related to the exodus story. Modern scholars, certainly, have distinguished different layers of redaction in Exod 1–15: that is, this text is the product of a combinatio…

“Patripassianism” (not to be confused with “theopassionism,” which is a synonym of theopaschitism: see Theopaschites) is a term of abuse referring to theological views that identify God the Father and God the Son so strongly that they seem to imply that Pater passus est (“The Father suffered”). Tertullian ascribed this position to a certain Praxeas and Hippolytus of Rome to Pope Zephyrinus, Pope Callistus, Noetus of Smyrna, Epigonus, Kleomenes, and Sabellius; all of these “patripassians” were active in Rome in the late 2nd and early…

The words “patrology” and “patristics” are derived from the Latin noun pater (“father”). In early Christianity, this word was used to refer to the bishops as being primarily responsible for the teaching of the faith (Altaner, 1960). From the 4th century CE onward, the term was no longer exclusively reserved for bishops. Vincent of Lérins (d. before 450 CE), in his Commonitorium ( Memoriale), summarizes the characteristics that a father, a “church father,” had to meet. A church father expressed the ancient doctrine, was orthodox, had a holy life, and his …

Thessalonica (or, Thessalonike) was a Greek port city on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. It lay on an important trade route known as the Via Egnatia, which facilitated the movement of people and commerce between the eastern and western Roman Empire. During the period of Paul’s travels (Paul [Apostle]) in the mid-1st century CE, Thessalonica was the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia, and like many large port cities, it boasted a cosmopolitan population and fostered all the …

The letter known as 2 Thessalonians opens with a traditional Pauline Letter opening (2 Thess 1:1–2). It states that the authors are Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy, and this is where the problems begin. New Testament scholars are divided over the question whether or not this is an authentic letter by Paul (Paul [Apostle]). Defenders of authenticity refer to the typical Pauline character of the language and structure of the letter, whereas scholars who argue in favor of pseudonymous authorship…

Paula (May 5, 347–Jan 26, 404 CE) was born in Rome to a wealthy senatorial family. Her mother, Blesilla, purportedly descended from the Gracchi and the Scipiones, while her father, Rogatus, traced his lineage back to Agamemnon (Jer. Ep. 108.1.1; 108.13.1). While little is known of Paula’s childhood, she married Iulius Toxotius in the 360s CE when she was still a young teenager. From this union resulted five children: Blesilla, Paulina, Eustochium, Rufina, and Toxotius.In 381 CE, the death of her husband allowed Paula to choose celibacy and to dedicate herself entirel…

The Acts of Paul (Cop. empraksis empaulos k[ata] papostolos, i.e. “the act(s) of Paul according to the apostle” in P.Heid.; i.e. Gk praxeis pa[ulos] in P.Hamb.) is the name of a mid- to late 2nd-century CE Christian literary work. The Acts of Paul is a travel narrative that shares many broad similarities to the literary genre of the Greek Romance, and more specifically offers an alternative, but similar, account of another early Christian text entitled the Acts of the Apostles. The story highlights the missionary travels of an early…

The Acts of Paul and Thecla is the name given to a subsection of the 2nd century CE Christian literary work known as the Acts of Paul ( Paul, Acts of). The Acts of Paul and Thecla highlights the travels of the apostle Paul (Paul [Apostle]) along with a female traveling companion by the name of Thecla (or Thekla) as they passed through the central Anatolian towns of Iconium and Antioch. The setting for the story presumes that the events are taking place sometime around the middle of the 1st century CE, yet most attempts at hi…

The Apocalypse of Paul, discovered in Upper Egypt in 1945, is the second text in Nag Hammadi Codex V. Its title (Cop. tapokalypsis mpaulos; Nag Hammadi Writings) appears in full at the end of the text ( Apoc. Paul 24.10) and in fragmentary form at the beginning ( Apoc. Paul 17.19). It exists in a sole 4th-century CE manuscript, although it could have been originally composed as early as the 2nd century CE. Preserved in the Sahidic dialect of Coptic, the text shows signs of having been translated from a Bohairic antecedent. As with many Nag…

Paul is one of the most beloved figures within the Christian tradition. He holds this position because his teachings influenced 1st-century CE believers and have remained influential up to the modern period. Paul, however, was not a Christian nor did he start (or convert to) a new religion called Christianity. After meeting Jesus and receiving his call, Paul spent the rest of his life figuring out and defending his understanding of Jesus within his Jewish context. For example, Paul does n…

The letter to Colossae and its neighbor city Laodicea (Col 2:1; 4:15–16) in the Lycos Valley in Asia Minor is part of almost all late antique Pauline Letters collections. However, significant stylistic and theological differences convinced most scholars that it was not written by Paul Paul [Apostle]but in his name shortly after the apostle’s martyrdom. While some see the letter’s primary purpose in the fight against a Colossian philosophy or some religious practice affiliated with Coloss…

According to some manuscripts, this Pauline Letter was addressed to the Ephesians (1:1). Other important manuscripts, however, do not include an address. Some scholars are therefore of the opinion that the text was initially a circular letter addressed to several Christian communities in the western part of Asia Minor, including Ephesus, Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colossae. The letter may also originally have been specifically addressed to the Christians in Laodicea, as a letter to them is…

Galatians is one of Paul’s earliest extant letters. It is one of seven letters undoubtedly written by Paul (Paul [Apostle]) – a collection also known as the seven undisputed Pauline Letters. In Galatians, Paul addresses topics that reflect both the Galatians’ situation as he perceives it and the validity of his ministry. Unfortunately for Paul, he must address these topics not for positive reasons but in response to a dire situation and to demonstrate he truly is an apostle and consequently his message is valid.Galatians often is described as Paul’s “most angry letter” because…

Meropius Pontius Paulinus (c. 352/353–431 CE) was born to an aristocratic Roman family in the Gallic provinces. He enjoyed the benefits that attended such elite status, including an extensive education with Ausonius in Bordeaux (Ausonius of Bordeaux), one of the leading teachers of the 4th century CE. Paulinus’ relationship with his teacher was deep and lasting, despite their eventual parting of ways concerning classical and Christian literary models (Paul. Carm. 10; Ep. 16). Following his education, the young Paulinus embarked upon a career path suitable for some…

Paulinus of Pella (376/377–after 459/460 CE) was an Aquitanian landed nobleman with properties in Gaul and Greece, grandson of Ausonius of Bordeaux, who ended his life in precarious circumstances due both to a family feud and to his not being able to cope with the disruptive Germanic presence in Gaul. He is the author of an autobiographical poem giving thanks for God’s providence, the Eucharisticos, which he finalized at the age of 83, and putatively also of a short poem called the Oratio. The Eucharisticos makes him one of the best-known Gallic individuals of late antiquity, …

The Life of Paul, or Vita Pauli, is one of Jerome’s earliest extant writings. He composed it in 376 CE while he was living as a monk in Syria, and he evidently dedicated it to a Christian literary patron of his named Paul, a centenarian who resided in the northern Italian city of Concordia (Jer. Ep. 10.3). This rather short work purports to recount the last days of Paul, a hermit from Thebes (Roman Egypt) whom Jerome represents as the elusive founder of desert monasticism (Desert Fathers).Raised in a well-to-do Christian home, Paul was orphaned at the age of 16. During the Decia…

The shortest Pauline letter is also one of the least known. Its theological interest is poor. It looks like a private letter in which Paul intercedes with a friend to solve a domestic problem between him and his slave. In addition, the letter suffers from some opacity about the nature of the problem. So that many wonder: how could this private and obscure letter have been incorporated into the biblical canon? The wide attention it has nevertheless received in recent research is probably d…

Sent from prison, the letter to the Philippians is the most poignant among those Paul (Paul [Apostle]) wrote. He reveals his feelings and emotions more than anywhere else. This time, he does not write to fight against a misguided interpretation of the gospel advanced by false brothers (Galatians), nor to develop his own synthesis on justification by faith (Romans), nor to meet problems faced by a community he founded (1 Corinthians). Philippians appears more selfless in some way. It is t…

The Prayer of the Apostle Paul features among the Nag Hammadi Codices (Nag Hammadi Writings) discovered in Upper Egypt in 1945. It occupies one-and-a-half pages of the flyleaf to Codex I. Preserved in the Subakhmimic dialect of Coptic, its title appears at the end of the text in Greek ( proseuch ē [paulou] apostolou), followed by a short colophon (“In peace. Christ is holy”), recommending Greek as its original language.It is, as the title suggests, a prayer. Approximately the first two lines are missing. The extant text begins with the supplicant addressing “my…

The Revelation of Paul is the second of five tractates in Nag Hammadi Codex V (pp. 17–24; Nag Hammadi Writings), a manuscript conventionally dated to the 4th or early 5th century CE. Originally composed in Greek in the late 2nd century CE, the Revelation of Paul survives only in Coptic translation and is not to be confused with the later Revelation of Paul, traditionally called Visio Pauli ( Paul, Apocalypse of [Visio Pauli]). The beginning of the work is lost in a lacuna of uncertain length; the title, The Revelation (apokalypsis) of Paul, appears at the end of the text ( Apoc. Paul 24:9) and m…

An occasional text sent by Paul to Christians of the imperial capital in the mid-50s of the 1st century CE, Romans is a monumental work handed down by the earliest Christian generation. With its 7,114 words, the letter exceeds the longest epistles of Seneca (4,134 words) and Cicero (2,530 words; see Richards, 2004, 163–169) as well as Epictetus’ longest discourse (5,850 words; Tobin, 2004, 93). Containing, so to speak, the DNA of Christian spiritual experience, Romans has proved greatly …

Pelagia (late 2nd, and early 3rd cent. CE) was an Antiochene virgin who lived presumably around the time of the Diocletianic persecutions in 303 CE (Burrus, 2003, 149; Persecution of Christians). She resided in a house with her mother and sisters, where they dedicated themselves to a life of chastity and asceticism. When Pelagia was 15 years old, a mob came to her home in order to haul her out onto the street and possibly to court (Ambr. Virg. 3.33; Chry. Pelag. 1). Both Ambrose of Milan and John Chrysostom, her only biographers, cast these aggressors as would-be rapists …

The Pelagians are the followers of Pelagius, condemned as a heretic in the 5th century CE. This term, however, was not used by any followers of Pelagius, but by their adversaries, such as Jerome ( Ep. 154.3) and especially Augustine of Hippo. At the beginning of the Pelagian controversy, Augustine preferred to keep the anonymity of his adversaries, or to name some of them individually, never using the term Pelagian. For instance, in Augustine’s first anti-Pelagian treatise, De peccatorum meritis et remissione, only Pelagius is mentioned by name, but in a laudatory manner fo…

Pelagius was probably born around 350 CE in Britain (Aug. Ep. 186.1; Marius Mercator, Commonitorium lectori adversum haeresim Pelagii et Caelestii vel etiam scripta Iuliani in ACO 1.5.1.5; Oros. Lib. apol. 12) or, less probably, in Ireland, according to Jerome ( Comm. Jer. 3, prologue 4). He is described by his adversaries as a robust and fat man (Oros. Lib. apol. 31; Jer. Comm. Jer. 1, prologue 4; 3, prologue 3), though the reliability of this description cannot be completely assured. Nonetheless, Augustine of Hippo recognized with respect his Christian …

Pelagius I (556–561 CE) was long thought to have held the see of Rome from 555 to 560 CE, but the correct dates were established by P.M. Gassó and C.M. Batlle (1956), editors of the sole modern edition of Pelagius’ letters. The confusion over his dates is a sign of the tumult of the times. In the first half of the 6th century CE, socioeconomic conditions had worsened in Italy, as the Gothic war left many dioceses unable to provide for their clergy or others in their district. Nevertheles…

Pella (Tabaqat Fahl, Jordan) is situated near sea level 4 km east of the Jordan River and 32 km south of the Sea of Galilee. Jerusalem is approximately 100 km to the southwest. After Alexander the Great marched through the region in 331 BCE, the Greek settlement was apparently founded by his veterans who named it after Alexander’s Macedonian birthplace. In 83/82 BCE Alexander Jannaeus destroyed Pella because its inhabitants failed to adopt Jewish customs (Jos. Ant. 13.15.4). Archaeological excavations have discovered a thick stratum reflecting that destruction. In 63 BC…

Penitence is often used synonymously with penance and repentance, although penance usually indicates a specific practice and repentance an interior condition. Penitence encompasses remorse, contrition, conversion, atonement, performed suffering or deprivation, religious status, ritual form, sacramental action, theological and cosmological meaning. Such multivalence is reflected in the varied sources exploring its manifestations and effects. This article traces some of the rationales for …

Luke’s account of the first Christian Pentecost (Acts 2:1–13) is one of his most famous and influential narratives. When the feast of Pentecost dawned, the disciples were all together (presumably all 120; see Acts 1:15?). Suddenly a sound like a violent wind comes from heaven and fills the whole house where they were sitting (2:2). And “divided tongues, just like fire,” appear to them, one sitting on each of them. They are all “filled with the Holy Spirit” and begin to speak with “other …

The eighth and final text in NHC VI (Nag Hammadi Writings) is a Coptic translation of an excerpt from The Perfect Discourse, a dialogue between Hermes Trismegistus and his disciples, Asclepius, Tat, and Ammon; this dialogue is said to occur in the inner sanctuary of an Egyptian temple. The full treatise was originally written in Greek around the 3rd century CE, but is only preserved in a Latin translation, commonly known as the Asclepius, which was transmitted alongside the philosophical works of Apuleius of Madaura. This fact led to the now mostly abandoned idea t…