Brill’s New Pauly
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Subject: Classical Studies
Edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider (Antiquity) and Manfred Landfester (Classical Tradition).
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
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Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Baal
(1,388 words)
[German version] (Semitic
bal, fem.
balat; Greek
Bḗlos, ‘Lord’, ‘Owner’, ‘Ruler’, ‘Master’, ‘Husband’). Since the 3rd millennium BC, the term B. was used to address God in the Syrian-Phoenician area (in the sense of ‘B. is almighty, ruler of order over chaos, lord of the heavens and the world and King’). At the same time, B. also designated individual or local deities when combined with toponyms (‘lord’ of a city, of a mountain range etc.) or with natural phenomena (‘lord’ of thunder, of rain etc., namely B. as weather god). In Ugarit's lists of gods, B. always follows El and Dag…
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Brill’s New Pauly
Baalbek
(2,207 words)
Freyberger, Klaus Stefan (Damascus) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) Baalbek, located in the fertile Beqaa plain northeast of Beirut, has been the site of an indigenous Baal cult since ancient times. The foundation of the Roman veteran colony presumably began in AD 16 with the construction of the sanctuary, whose monumental construction lasted until the 3rd cent. AD. The old cult remained alive among the population of the new colony. The sanctuary continued to be used even when transformed by new cu…
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Brill’s New Pauly
Baalbek
(276 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Syria | Theatre | Coloniae | Asia Minor Town in the Biqa plain between Lebanon and Antilebanon, located at an elevation of 1150 m, 64 km north-east of Beirut. The town's name was changed to Heliopolis (Str. 753; Plin. HN 5,80), probably because the Ptolemies of Alexandria identified the god ‘Baal (Haddad) of Biqa’ with the Egyptian sun god Ra/Helios. After the temporary rulership of the Seleucids (2nd cent. BC), B. became the cult centre for the Itu…
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Babrius
(486 words)
[German version] Author of a collection of mostly Aesopian fables using a special kind of choliamb, which he himself called
mythiambos (
prologos 2,7-8). The name B. is Italic [1. VII]. In 57,1, the author proclaims to know Arabs well, and in
prologos 2,1, he states (as the only Greek) that the fable originated in Mesopotamia. His style [4] and particularly his special way of forming verses [6] make it obvious that B. wrote no earlier than in the 2nd cent. AD. The assumption that the actual addressee of the work, who in the text is poet…
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Babylon
(712 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Achaemenids | Xenophon | Zenobia | Diadochi and Epigoni | Alexander | Commerce | Hellenistic states | India, trade with | Limes | Mesopotamia | Rome | Rome Capital of Babylonia, on the river Euphrates south of Baghdad, near today's city of Hilleh. The Greek form of the name goes back to a place name in an unknown linguistic substratum of Mesopotamian (Babillu), which was interpreted by the popular Babylonian etymology of the Semitic population as Bāb-ili(m), ‘God's gate’.…
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Babylon
(4,479 words)
Rollinger, Robert (Innsbruck RWG) [German version] A. Preliminary note (CT) The name Babylon (B.) can refer to both the city and the country of the same name. Ancient Assyria can also be included under the latter. It is not always possible to distinguish between these meanings. Rollinger, Robert (Innsbruck RWG) [German version] B. Introduction (CT) In the first centuries AD, the ancient city of B. increasingly lost significance. Although the evidence of the Tabula Peutingeriana (3rd cent.) indicates it was still part of ancient travel routes (see ma…
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Babylonia
(412 words)
[German version] In its lexical meaning, the term B., as used by Greek and Latin writers, (also expanded by γῆ,
gê, μοῖρα,
moîra or rather χώρα,
chṓra) refers to the territory of the city of Babylon (its wider surroundings); however, its use in that sense is frequently not unambiguous. In derivation, the term is nowadays generally taken to refer to the entire southern part of Mesopotamia, between the Persian Gulf and roughly the 34th northern parallel. Ancient oriental sources, though, do not use an equivalent regional …
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Bacchanal(ia)
(634 words)
[German version] In its oldest source, the
senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus from 186 BC, the Latin word
bacchanal is used in the singular to designate a place of cult worship (Schuhmacher, Roman Inscription II 11). In the plural, it designates religious groups and cult rituals (Macrob. Sat. 1,18,1-5). The term
bacchanal is based on a cult name of Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus, or rather his offshoot Pacha, epithet of the Etruscan god Fufluns who was identified with Dionysus [1. 127] (detailed history of the term [6. 24f.]). It is controversial what type of cult place a
bacchanal could …
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Bacchiadae
(530 words)
[German version] (Βακχιάδαι;
Bakchiádai). Exclusive aristocratic group which ruled over Corinth from the middle of the 8th cent. BC. The B. derived from the Corinthian King Bacchis and followed their family tree back to Heracles. 200 families belonged to the group (Diod. Sic. 7,9,6). They were a closed group for members by birthright only and maintained their exclusive status through endogamy (Hdt. 5,92). This practice distinguished them from the general aristocratic ruler classes of other poleis…
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Bacchides
(63 words)
[German version] (Βακχίδης;
Bakchídēs). ‘Friend’ of the Seleucid Antiochus IV, who governed Mesopotamia on his behalf. In 162 BC, he installed Alcimus as high priest under the orders of Demetrius I, defeated Iudas Maccabaeus, and strictly upheld Seleucid rulership over Judea (1 Macc 7-9; Ios. Bell. Iud. 1,35f.; Ant. Iud. 12,393-396; 420ff.
passim; 13,4ff.
passim Niese. Antiochus [2-12] Mehl, Andreas (Halle/Saale)
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Bacchius
(427 words)
(Βακχεῖος;
Bakcheîos). [German version] [1] From Tanagra, physician, c. 250-200 BC of Tanagra. According to Erotian (31,10), B. was a physician and student of Herophilus (Gal. 18 A, 187 K.), active around 250-200 BC. In addition to his writings about pulse theory, pathology, and pharmacology, he also authored his memoirs of Herophilus and the latter's other students. B.'s reputation is largely based upon his glossary on Hippocrates, in which certain text versions have survived that are missing in the MSS o…
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Bacchon
(46 words)
[German version] (Βάκχων;
Bákchōn). Son of Nicetas, from Boeotia, Ptolemaic nesiarch of the League of Islanders in 286 BC. He stayed in office until after 280 (PP 6, 15038). Ameling, Walter (Jena) Bibliography R. S. Bagnall, The administration of the Ptolemaic possessions outside Egypt, 1976, 136ff.
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Bacchus
(1,417 words)
(βάκχος;
bákchos). [German version] I. Greece [German version] A. Mystes Βάκχος, βακχεύειν
[1] (
Bákchos/bakcheúein) and related words refer to a type of raving (μανία,
manía) predominantly expressed in the Dionysus cult ([1] where we also find a discussion about the word's origin; Hdt. 4,79). This essential characteristic of a Bacchus/Baccha was taken as a sign that he or she was possessed by the god (ἔνθεος,
éntheos). The Bacchus/Baccha usually wore a thyrsus (or
bakchos see below) and the skin of a deer (νεβρίς,
nebrís). Although the thyrsus was seen as a particularly obviou…
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Bacchylides
(1,270 words)
[German version] (Βακχυλίδης;
Bakchylídēs). Author of choral lyric whose productive period was in the 5th cent. BC. B. was born in Iulis on Ceos, but the exact year of his birth remains contested. He was the grandson of an athlete by the same name, the son of a man called Meidon (Suda) or Meidylus (EM), and nephew of Simonides [1. 130-132]. Eusebius of Caesarea stated the time of B.'s
akmḗ as the 2nd year of the 78th Olympiad, doubtlessly due to B.'s most important assignment -- to praise Hieron of Syracuse's victory in the chariot race of 468 BC. In Chron. pasch., his
akmḗ is set 13 years earl…
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Bacis
(210 words)
[German version] (Βάκις;
Bákis). Ecstatic seer from Boeotia, supposed author of hexametric oracles, which have been in circulation since the Persian Wars (Hdt. 7,20; 77; 96; 9,43). Other oracles refer to the reconstruction of Messene (Paus. 4,27,4) or to Theban rites (ibid., 9,15,7; 10,32,8-11); Athenian inscriptions possibly attest to an oracle (IG II4968; SEG.10,175) [1]. The nymphs had driven B. to madness (Paus. 4,27,4; 20,12,11), supposedly those of the Corycian grotto (Schol. Aristoph. Pax 1279). B. also cures madness, like the seer Melamp…
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Bactria
(970 words)
[German version] A. Sources Herodotus was the first to write about ancient B., and he was closest to the events he describes; all further tradition is secondary, mainly also the information relating to the epoch of Alexander [4] the Great by Arrian (A.) and Curtius Rufus, who refer back to Aristobulus, Ptolemy and Cleitarchus. Strabo (11,11) and Ptolemy (6,11 N) give coherent representations of B. and, in addition, there are scattered accounts by Aelianus [2], Aeschylus, Aristotle, Diodorus Sicul…
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Bactrus
(132 words)
(Βάκτρος;
Báktros). [German version] [1] Inhabitant of the city of Bactra or of the land Bactria Inhabitant of the city of Bactra or of the land Bactria (usually ὁ Βάκτριος and Βακτριανός), see Dionys. Per. 736 (GGM II p. 150), Nonnus, Dion. 25,374, Str. 11,11,3 Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Treidler, Hans (Berlin) [German version] [2] Southerly tributary of the Oxus Southerly tributary of the Oxus (Āmū-daryā), today Balḫāb (Curt. 7,4,31; Plin. HN 6,48; Str. 11,11,2 i.a.); identical with the Araxes, according to Aristot. Mete. 1,13,16 and Ps.-Plut. De …
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Bacurius
(124 words)
[German version] Prince (according to Rufin. Hist. 1,10: King) of the Iberi to the north of Armenia. He entered into office in the service of the Romans as a
protector possibly as early as 378-369 and fought as the
tribunus of one of the two
scholae palatinae at Adrianopolis (Amm. Marc. 31,12,16). B. became
dux Palaestinae and later (around 391/2)
comes domesticorum to Theodosius I. He took part in the battle on the Frigidus (as
magister utriusque militiae? Rufin. Hist. 2,33; according to Zos. 4,57,3; 58,3, he fell in the battle). B. was a Christian (Rufin. Hist. 1,10)…
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Badger
(196 words)
[German version] A predator of the marten family (
Mustelidae), called
meles (
maeles, Varro, Rust. 3,12,3;
melo, Isid. Orig. 12,2,40) by the Romans; it was nocturnal and probably unknown to the Greeks [1]. Pliny maintains wrongly (HN 8,138) that it could defend itself against humans and dogs by puffing itself up, and otherwise only mentions it in comparison with other animals. Without taking into consideration the notes of the physician Marcellus Empiricus (36,5) who under the name of
adeps taxoninus (which was Celtic) according to Isidore, Orig. 20,2,24, with a quotation …
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Bad Nauheim
(149 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Celts Located in the Wetterau region, the town is rich in saltwater springs that were exploited already in the late Celtic period (1st cent. BC) as saltworks with remnants of briquetage (grading basins, ovens, clay barrels, forming vessels). There are still traces of settlements in the city area such as a fortification of a section on the Johannisberg, a large field of cremation graves, and a hoard of Celtic coins that all bear witness to the to…
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Baebia
(44 words)
[German version] B. Galla, wife of procurator Q. Licinius Silvanus Granianus,
flaminica in Hispania Tarraconensis (AE 1929, 232 = RIT 321); mother of a consular by the same name who served in the year 106 (see PIR2 L 247). Eck, Werner (Cologne)
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Baebius
(1,433 words)
Plebeian gentile name (Schulze 133; ThlL 2,1674f.). The family played an eminent role since the 2nd Punic War but did not achieve a lasting position in the top ranks of Roman nobility during the Republic. The most important family is that of the Tamp(h)ili. The Baebii produced several officials in imperial times. I. Republican period [German version] [I 1] B. (Tamphilus), M. Tribunus plebis 103 BC (?), as tribune of the people, he offered resistance against the
lex agraria of L. Appuleius Saturninus in 103 BC (Vir. ill. 73,1). Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) [German version] [I 2] B. Deleg…
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Baecula
(73 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Punic Wars Settlement in the mining area on the upper Baetis (modern Bailen). In 208 BC, it was the location of one of the decisive battles of the Second Punic War, in which Hasdrubal was defeated by P.C. Scipio Africanus. Hasdrubal subsequently departed from Spain (Pol. 10,38,7; 11,20,5; Liv. 27,18,1; 28,13,5; App. Ib. 24). Barceló, Pedro (Potsdam) Bibliography Tovar 3, 153-154.
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Baetasii
(57 words)
[German version] A people in Lower Germania, whose tribal area, attributed to the
colonia Ulpia Traiana/Xanten, most likely lay between Erkelenz and Krefeld. The B. participated with one contingent in the revolt of Julius Civilis (Plin. HN 4,106; Tac. Hist. 4,56,3; 66,1). Dietz, Karlheinz (Würzburg) Bibliography TIR M 31,39 C. B. Rüger, Germania Inferior, 1968, esp. 98f.
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Baeterrae
(136 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Christianity | Coloniae | Gallia/Gaul
Oppidum of the Volcae Arecomici in Gallia Narbonensis, modern Béziers (Hérault), settled at the latest from 750/650 BC. Since Caesar's time,
Colonia Urbs Iulia Septimanorum Baeterrae with veterans of the
legio VII (Plin. HN 3,36; Mela 2,75; Str. 4,1,6; Ptol. 2,10,6). B. was the centre of an important road network, and controlled a large and prosperous surrounding area, favoured by the nearby ports of Agatha and Narbo. Its destruction in the …
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Baetis
(113 words)
[German version] Modern river Guadalquivir. Its ancient course was the same as today, but originally, its delta had four branches (Avien. 288ff.), and two in the Augustan period (Str. 3,1,9; 2,11); nowadays, it discharges into the Atlantic from a single course; the silted branches of the delta can still be detected. Its high water levels seem to have remained unchanged: large seagoing vessels sailed upriver to Hispalis, small ones to Ilipa, and river barges to Corduba (Str. 3,2,3). Barceló, Pedro (Potsdam) Bibliography A. Casal, El Guadalquivir, 1975 A. Ruiz Rodriguez, M. Molinos…
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Baetulo
(37 words)
[German version] River (modern Besos) and
municipium (modern Badalona) of the Lacetani on the eastern coast of Spain (Mela 2,90; Plin. HN 3,22; Ptol. 2,6,19; CIL II 4606-4608; 4611). Barceló, Pedro (Potsdam) Bibliography Schulten 1, 1974, 305.
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Bagacum
(319 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: | Limes Modern Bavai, capital (
civitas) of the Nervii, in the French Département Nord not far off the Belgian border. The Celtic place name as well as some scanty finds from the Latène period hint at the possibility that a modest pre-Roman settlement existed. However, B. is a Roman foundation, and has to be seen in the context of Agrippa's road building programme for the reorganization of Gaul (20/19 BC). At this junction of the links with Durocort…
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Bagae
(159 words)
[German version] City in Numidia, located between the Aurès mountains to the south and the salt lake Garaat al-Tarf to the north, called Ksar Baghai today, originally perhaps a local
castellum. There is evidence for a council of
decuriones in the year AD 162 (CIL VIII 1, 2275). A diocesan town in 256, it became one of the most important centres of Donatism in late antiquity [1. 284, 304, 719-723]. For example in the year 394, 310 Donatist bishops assembled in B. (Aug. Epist. Parmeniani 3,4,21; c. Cresconium grammaticum 3f.). B. wa…
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Bagaudae
(333 words)
[German version] The B. were rebellious residents of rural Gallia and Spain (3rd to 5th cents. AD). The first appearance of B. (under their leaders Aelianus and Amandus) is documented for the time around AD 285/6. In 286, Maximianus became joint ruler with Diocletianus under orders to defeat the B. (Eutr. 9,20; cf. Pan. 2(10),4,3). In AD 407, battles erupted again in the
tractus Aremoricanus (between the mouths of the Loire and the Seine). The revolt was finally suppressed before the year 417 by Exuperantius, a relative of Rutilius Namatianus (Rut. Namat.…
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Bagoas
(192 words)
(Βαγώας;
Bagṓas), Greek name for Persian eunuchs (Plin. HN 13,41). [German version] [1] Commander of Artaxerxes Ochus, 338 BC ‘An extremely impudent and sacrilegious man’ (Diod. Sic. 16,47,4) who took part in the renewed conquest of Egypt led by Artaxerxes Ochus, became commander-in-chief of the Upper Satrapies, then chiliarchos (‘lord of the realm’ Diod. Sic. 16,50,8). In 338 BC, he poisoned the king, in 336, he poisoned the king's son and successor Arses, and installed a courtier on the throne, who then adopt…
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Bagradas
(153 words)
[German version] (Μακάρας;
Makáras, Pol. 1,75,5; 1,86,9; 15,2,8 [1.1085f.]; Βαγράδας;
Bagrádas, Str. 17,3,13; Ptol. 4,3,6; 4,3,18; 4,3,31; 6,10; Bagrada: Mela 1,34; Lucan. 4,587; Plin. HN 5,24; cf. 8,37). Today called Ksar Baghai (concerning the name [2. 1311]), the longest river in north-eastern Africa (365 km; Iulius Honorius differs,
Cosmographia 47: 318 miles). The B. rises near Thubursicum Numidarum (Iulius Honorius ibid.; Ptol. differs 4,3,18; 6,10) and flows sluggishly (Sil. Pun. 6,140-143) from west-south-west to east-south-east. The…
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Bahrain
(294 words)
[German version] Island in the Persian Gulf. Archaeological evidence indicates that settlement on the island began in the 7th millennium BC. According to written sources from Mesopotamia, B. was part of the region of Dilmun since the 3rd millennium BC, and became a politically independent centre of trade at the turn of the 2nd millennium BC, which also happens to be the epoch with the best archaeological findings. Texts from Mesopotamia as well as archaeological evidence from B. indicate that the…
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Baiae
(216 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Theatre | Villa City in Campania, located in the westernmost bay of the Gulf of Pozzuoli (Mela 2,70; Plin. HN 3,61; It. Ant. 123,6; Prob. App. gramm. 4,195; Serv. Aen. 9,707; Βαῖαι: Str. 5,4,5; Cass. Dio, 48,51,5; Βαιαί: EM 192,45-46; Boiae, Baie), today called Comune di Bacoli. B. belongs to the geological region of the Campi Phlegraei, a coastal landscape shaped by brandyseism and geothermal phenomena (therefore many thermal installations existe…
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Baiovarii
(121 words)
[German version] Mixed Romano-Germanic tribe (Bavarians), first recorded in Iord. Get. 55,280 as living in southern Germany east of the river Lech (cf. Venantius Fortunatus, Vita Martini 4,640-645). Etymologically most likely the ‘descendants of those living in Bai(a)-haim (= Bohemia)’; the
foederati, archaeologically evident in the Friedenhain-Přeštovice pottery, were most likely -- initially independently, later tolerated by the Ostrogoths (Theoderic the Great) -- to have formed the military core, around which, with Regensburg at its…
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Baitylia
(346 words)
(βαιτύλια; βαίτυλοι;
baitýlia,
baítyloi). [German version] I. Religious Studies Large upright stones which are included in the cult activity in sanctuaries are to be found throughout the entire Mediterranean region [1]. It was the Phoenicians in particular who contributed to the spread of these. The
baitylia in Tyrus and in Emesa were famous [2]. In Israel polemics and the inclusion of
baitylia in the cult (Maṣṣebah) with the predication of God, exist side by side (God as a rock: Ps 28,1 [3]). Minoan iconography portrays ecstatic theophany (?) [4]. In Gre…
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Bakeries
(1,068 words)
[German version] processed all edible grain products in antiquity, especially bread. The sources indicate, that people preferred fine, white flour over coarser but more nutritious flour. Wheat and barley were the predominant grains [2]. In the Greek world, barley was more important than wheat both in daily nourishment as well as in rituals (Theophr. Caus. pl. 3,21,3; Ath. 3,111c-112a). But it is certain that Homer was familiar with wheat bread and that Theophrastus was aware of wheat's higher nut…
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Balacrus
(208 words)
(Βάλακρος;
Bálakros). Various men with this name served as officers under Alexander [4] the Great. [German version] [1] Satrap of Cilicia, after 333 BC Son of a certain Nicanor, married Phila, daughter of Antipater [1], who bore him a son. First
somatophýlax , after the battle of Issus, was appointed satrap of Cilicia, where he fought with great success against the mountain tribes, but fell in battle shortly before Alexander's death. Badian, Ernst (Cambridge, MA) Bibliography Berve 2, no. 200 Heckel 260. [German version] [2] Commander of the Greek allied infantry from 334/33 BC Son of …
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Balai
(118 words)
[German version] Syrian poet from the first half of the 5th cent. AD, probably worked in Chalcis/Qennešrin (northern Syria). Two poems are definitely genuine, the one about the consecration of a church in Qennešrin, the other one about the death of bishop Acacius of Beroea [3] (Aleppo) in the year AD 432. An epic poem in 12 books about the patriarch Joseph, which is also attributed to Ephraim, could have been written by B. Many liturgical poems with verses in five syllables (‘Balai metre’) are attributed to him. Brock, Sebastian P. (Oxford) Bibliography K. V. Zettersteen, Beiträge zur …
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Balantiotomoi
(34 words)
[German version] (βαλαντιοτόμοι;
balantiotómoi). ‘Cutpurses’ (pickpockets) were pursued in Athens on the basis of the νόμος τῶν κακούργων (
nómos tôn kakoúrgōn) with
apagōgḗ (‘leading away’) and punished with death. Thür, Gerhard (Graz)
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Balari
(63 words)
[German version] (Βαλαροί;
Balaroí). Rapacious mountain people in Sardinia (Str. 5,225; Plin. HN 3,85). The B. were supposedly descendants of Iberian and Libyan mercenaries, who had deserted from Carthaginian service (Paus. 10,17,9); participated in the rebellion of the neighbouring Ilienses against the Romans in 178 BC and defeated the consul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Liv. 41,6,12) in 177. Günther, Linda-Marie (Munich)
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Balāwāt
(151 words)
Old Imgur-Enlil, approximately 28 km south-east of Mossul (Iraq). The ruins of a palace and a temple for the god Mamu, erected by Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) [1] have been documented. In the temple area the ornamental fittings in bronze relief from two two-winged gates of Assurnasirpal II [1; 2] were found, as well as one of his son Salmanassar III [3]. Episodes from military campaigns are depicted, more rarely from royal hunts. The citadel was destroyed in the late 7th cent. BC and only resettled for a short period in Hellenistic times. Sculpting, technique of Bibliography
1 J. Curt…
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Balbillus (Barbillus)
(154 words)
[German version] Claudius Balbillus, Tiberius.
Praefectus Aegypti AD 55-59; games were held in Ephesus after 70 (Βαλβιλλεῖα;
Balbilleîa) in his honour. Sen. Q Nat. 4,2,13 praises his erudition, therefore identified by Cichorius i.a. [2; 3; 9. 39] against [10] with the son of Thrasyllus, the astrologer of emperors Claudius (he comes to him in 41 as envoy of the Alexandrians to Rome), Nero and Vespasianus. His writings, addressed to a certain Hermogenes, were called Ἀστρολογούμενα (
Astrologoúmena). Hübner, Wolfgang (Münster) Bibliography Fragments :
1 F. Cumont, CCAG VIII 4, 23…
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Balbinus
(357 words)
Roman cognomen (ThlL 2,1694f.; [1. 240]). Consuls with the epithet B.: L. Saenius B. (? 30 BC), P. Coelius B. Vibellius Pius (AD 137), L. Valerius Poblicola B. (AD 256). Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) [German version] [1] D.C. (Calvinus) B. = Imperator Caesar D.C. Calvinus B. Elected emperor by the Senate in 238 AD According to Zonaras, (12,17, not precise) 60 years old in the year AD 238, when he was elected emperor by the Senate, together with Pupienus, who is always mentioned before him. Supposed descendant of the Gaditanian Cornelius Balbus (S…
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Balbis
(117 words)
[German version] Starting- and finishing-line in the Greek stadium. The
balbis was a stone bump equipped with grooves and let into the ground; starting gates made of wooden posts were anchored into it. The grooves served as places for the feet to rest against when starting. Numerous examples are preserved such as in Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, Ephesus. Artistic representations in sculpture, relief art and vase-painting. In addition,
balbis is also a term to describe the line to mark the throwing off of discus and javelin. Höcker, Christoph (Kissing) Bibliography W. Zschietzschmann, Wet…
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Balboura
(146 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Theatre | Lycii, Lycia | Education / Culture North Lycian town with extensive chora, possibly of Pisidian origins, founded in the 2nd cent. BC [1; 2]. With Boubon and Oenoanda member in a tetrapolis, which was led by Cibyra (Str. 13,4,17); after this was dissolved in 84 BC, added to the Lycian League by Murena, but with its own coins [3]. Oldest ruins from the Hellenistic period (Acropolis); buildings (i.a. theatre, temple, aqueduct) and graves testi…
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Balbus
(65 words)
[German version] Common Roman cognomen (‘the Stutterer’) in republican times among the Acilii, Cornelii, Laelii, Lucilii and other families (ThlL 2,1693f.). In imperial times the epithet of the following consuls: l. Cornelius B. (40 BC), l. Cornelius B. (32 BC), D. Laelius B. (6 BC), l. Norbanus B. (AD 19), Q. Iulius B. (AD 85), Q. Iulius B. (AD 129). Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum)
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Baletium
(100 words)
[German version] Messapian town,
c. 17 km south-east of Brindisi, today Valesio. Baleθas/Faleθas on silver coins (4th or 5th cent. BC) [1. 226-235]. B. in Geogr. Rav. 4,31, Balesium in Plin. HN 3,101, Valetium in Mela 2,66, Balentium in the Tab. Peut. 7,2, Valentiam in the It. Burd. 609,8. Archaeological remains from Messapian and Roman periods (until the 5th cent. AD) [2; 3] have been found. Lombardo, Mario (Lecce) Bibliography
1 A. Siciliano, Le zecche della Messapia, in: Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi sulla Magna Grecia 30, 1991, 224-254
2 J. S. Boersma, D. G. Yntema, V…
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Baliares
(399 words)
[German version] A. General The modern B. were named
Gymnḗsiai by the Greeks, because their inhabitants went naked during the summer. The two main islands were referred to respectively as
insula maior and
insula minor; the names of
Maiorica and
Menorica (modern Mallorca and Minorca) are only found from the 3rd cent. AD (Georgius Cyprianus, p. 108, 673 Gelzer). Apart from those two islands, Plin. HN 3,78 also lists
Capraria,
Triquada and
parva (sc.
insula)
Hannibalis, also
Menariae. They can undoubtedly be identified with the islands of Cabrera, Porrasa, Sech and the Las …
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Baliaricus
(29 words)
[German version] Victor's epithet of Q.
Caecilius Metellus (
cos. 123 BC), which he assumed after his triumph over the Baleares in 121 (InscrIt 13,1,83). Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum)
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Balius
(134 words)
[German version] (Βάλιος, Βαλίας;
Bálios,
Balías) and Xanthus. Immortal horses of the Peleid Achilles, who were born by the harpy Podarge to Zephyrus, god of the winds. Poseidon gave them to Peleus on his marriage to Thetis (Hom. Il. 16,148-154; Apollod. 3,170). Xanthus prophesied Achilles his approaching death (Hom. Il. 19,400-424). When he dies, B. and Xanthus want to leave the human sphere, but the gods order them to serve Achilles' son Neoptolemus and to carry him later to Elysium (Quint. Smyrn.…
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Balkans, languages
(1,118 words)
[German version] A. Palaeo-Balkanic languages Those languages, which were spoken in antiquity in the Balkan area, are considered to be Palaeo-Balkanic languages, but are only known in fragments from indirect sources (references by Greek and Lat. authors, names on Greek and Lat. inscriptions) (so-called fragmented languages), especially 1. Pre-Greek ( Pre-Greek languages), 2. Macedonian, 3. Thracian, 4. Dacian, 5. Illyrian. Thracian was spread throughout the eastern half of the continental area of the Balkans and probably showed a strong division into …
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Balkh
(116 words)
[German version] (Βάκτρα;
Báktra). Commercial and residential town at the intersection of two caravan routes in north Afghanistan. Originally Ζαρίασπα (
Zaríaspa; Arr. 3,1,5,71; Pol. 10,49) or Zariastes (Plin. HN 6,48). Today densely populated and, therefore, only excavations at the edge of the tell. Antiochus III besieged Euthydemus in vain in 206 BC; the latter built up the Graeco-Bactrian empire from here ( Bactria). In 1966, a hoard find brought forth more than 170 Greek coins from the period before 380 BC. Inhabited and fortified until today. Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Trei…
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Ball games
(585 words)
[German version] (σφαιρίσεις;
sphairíseis,
pilae lusus). Homeric society already enjoyed ball games (BG) (Hom. Od. 6,110-118; 8,372-380), which have also been practised by people of all social levels (Ath. 1,14e, 15c; 12,548b; Plut. Alexander 39,5; Cic. Tusc. 5,60) and age groups since then. The Romans took many BG over from the Greek. Some were team games, like
harpaston or ἐπίσκυρος,
epískyros (Poll. 9,103f.; schol. Pl. Tht. 146 i.a.), during which the opposite party was gradually pushed off the field by long-range shots, perhaps depicted on the relie…
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Ballista
(105 words)
[German version] Called ‘Callistus’ by Greek authors, because of an orthographical error [1], Praetorian praefect of Valerianus, then of Macrianus (SHA Valer. 4,4; SHA Gall. 3,2). After Valerian was taken prisoner, he had the sons of Macrianus proclaimed emperors (SHA Gall. 1,3). As cavalry commander for Macrianus, he triumphed over the Persians (Zon. 12,24). He stayed in the east with Quietus, the younger son of Macrianus, but surrendered Quietus in the battle of Emesa; however, B. was soon killed by Odoenathus (Zon. 12,24; SHA Gall. 3,1f.). PIR2 B 41; PLRE 1, 146. Birley, A. R. (Dü…
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Baloia
(194 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Roman
municipium (at the time of Emperor Hadrian?) in the upper Pliva valley, province of Dalmatia; today Šipovo (Bosnia-Herzegovina); its city status is confirmed by CIL III 13982, with the formula
[l(ocus)] d(atus) d(ecreto) d(ecurionum). Widely scattered urban habitats. B. was developed in the mining area of Sinjakovo near Majdan, along the important Roman road Salona -- Servitium (Tab. Peut. 5,2:
Baloea), not far from the road Salviae - Sarnade -- Leusaba - Servitium (It. Ant. 268). Flourished in t…
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Balsam
(197 words)
[German version] (βάλσαμον;
bálsamon), also balsam sap or inferior wood balsam (ὀποβάλσαμον or ξυλοβάλσαμον), the aromatic resin of the Burseracea
Commiphora (=
balsamodendron)
opobalsamum (including
gileadensis), which is tapped in the summer. Balsam was only known since Theophr. Hist. pl. 9,6 only as a product of two gardens from Palestine (Judea near Jericho) and from Arabia (Str. 16,2,763). Dioscorides (1,19,1-5 [1. 1.24ff.] = 1,18 [2. 45ff.]; following Theophrastus) describes the small bush, which resembles the vin…
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Balthi
(226 words)
[German version] The B. (‘the Bold’) are the royal line of the Visigoths, which is held in lesser esteem than the Amali line of the Ostrogoths. Although the B. are also considered to be a line of ‘kings and heroes’, in contrast with the Amali, the memory of divine descent was lost. The historical descent of the royal family also remains obscure, because the relationship of the first identifiable Balthi prince, Alaric I ( Alaricus [2], died AD 410), to the three Terwingian judges of the 4th cent. …
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Baltic languages
(981 words)
Forssman, Bernhard (Erlangen) [German version] A. Introduction (CT) The term Baltic languages (BL) refers to an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, a branch that includes Lithuanian, Latvian and Old Prussian, the last of which died out c. 1700. Trade contacts between the Baltic peoples and the Romans ( Trade/Trade routes) had existed as early as Antiquity along the Amber Road, but evidence of linguistic contact at that early time does not exist. The Baltic peoples do not enter i…
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Baltic languages
(132 words)
[German version] The Baltic languages (BL) represent a branch of the Indo-European languages and consist of Lithuanian and Latvian (East Baltic) and Old Prussian (West Baltic) in East Prussia, which had died out in
c. AD 1700. For the Indo-European kinship cf. e.g. Lithuanian
diẽvas, Latvian
dìevs, Old Prussian
deiwas ‘god’ with Lat.
deus, all from Indo-European *
dei̯u̯os ‘god’, or Lithuanian
raũdas ‘red’ with Lat.
ruber and Greek ἐρυθρός, or Latvian
broter-ė̃lis ‘little brother’ with Lat.
frāter. The BL belong to the satem languages and are relatively similar to the …
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Baltimore Painter
(122 words)
[German version] Apulian vase painter from the last quarter of the 4th cent. BC, named after a vessel in Baltimore. The Baltimore Painter (BP) painted mostly on vessels with large surfaces (volute kraters, amphoras, loutrophori, hydrias i.a. Pottery, shapes and types of) with funerary scenes ( Naiskos vases), mythological scenes ( Bellerophon, assemblies of the gods) and Dionysian subjects; rarer are genre scenes, like images of women, weddings and Erotes. His presence and artistic work in Canosa…
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Bambyce
(244 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Syria | Zenobia | Limes (Βαμβύκη;
Bambýkē). City in North Syria, 78 km north-east of Aleppo at the confluence of the Sadjur and the Euphrates. B. (Str. 16,2,7) was since Seleucus I known as the Syrian Ἱεράπολις,
Hierápolis (Str. 16,1,27, Ptol. 5,14,10), but at the same time also as Mabbog (Plin. HN 5, 81) with the Graecized form, Μέμπετξε (Leo Diaconus, 165,22; from which the Arabic Manbiǧ). The position, generally identified with the Assyrian settlement Nappigi/Nampigi, possesse…
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Bâmyân
(124 words)
[German version] Resting-place for pilgrims and caravans between Balkh and Peshawar ( Peucelaotis). Described by the Chinese pilgrim Hsüan Tsang in the 7th cent. AD; known in Europe since 1824; explored by a French expedition in 1922-30. Oldest remains of the city in the valley of B. date from the 5th cent. AD. Important Buddhist monastery, which was chiselled into a steep rock-face between the 5th and 7th cents. Large Buddhas (one 53 m, the second 35 m high), which were cut out of the rock, were…
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Banasa
(120 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Coloniae Probably indigenous name of a city of Mauritania Tingitana on the left bank of the Oued Sebou on the fertile Ġharb plain, today Sidi Ali bou Djenoun. The oldest archaeological signs lead to the 6th/5th cents. BC; ceramics found show Phoenician and Iberian influences. After the death of Bocchus [2] II, the young Caesar raised B. to the status of a
colonia (33-27 BC); Marcus Aurelius granted it the honorary name
colonia Aurelia Banasa. Inscriptions: Inscr. antiques du Maroc 2, 84-246 (i.a. the
Tabula Banasitana and an e…
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Bandum
(84 words)
[German version] (τὸ βάνδον;
tò bándon). Originally the description of the colours of small military units,
bandum was used for the units themselves from the 6th cent. In the 10th cent., a
bandum consisted of 50-100 heavily or 200-400 lightly armed soldiers. The
bandum was commanded by a
comes ; five to seven
banda formed a
turma. The term remained in use until the 14th cent. Makris, Georgios (Bochum) Bibliography J. Haldon, Byzantine Praetorians, 1984, 172-173, 276-277 T. Kolias, s.v. Heer, LMA 4, 1989, 2002-2004.
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Bandusia
(150 words)
[German version] [1] Spring near Venusia Spring near Venusia, the native city of Horatius, who was prompted by B. to name B. [2]. In connection with Bantia (today Banzi), it is located in the Palazzo San Gervasio (today Potenza) on the basis of a bull of Pope Pasquale II (1103), who addresses an
ecclesia ss. martyrum Gervasii et Protasii in Bandusino fonte apud Venusium and a
castellum Bandusii. Uggeri, Giovanni (Florence) Bibliography Jaffé, 714, 5945. [German version] [2] Spring in Apulia
Fons splendidior vitro (‘a spring, clearer than glass’ Hor. Carm. 3,13), named thus by…
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Banishment
(57 words)
[German version] In Graeco-Roman Antiquity banishment largely replaced the death penalty for members of the upper class, but also existed as an independent punishment, as in the Attic
ostrakismós . For details for Greece, particularly Athens, see
phygḗ ,
aeiphygía ,
apeniautismós , for Rome see
exilium ,
deportatio ,
relegatio . Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)
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Banks
(2,042 words)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient Banks as institutions whose specific task consists of arranging payment transactions, accepting deposits and granting credits, did not exist in the Ancient Orient. There is evidence of deposit and credit operations in ancient oriental societies of differing quantity and intensity, both in the domain of palace and temple economy and in individual private legal and economic transactions, but they were always subordinate to the respectively dominating redistributive an…
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Banquet
(3,705 words)
[German version] I. Egypt and the ancient Orient The central Egyptian sources of information regarding banquets are the depictions of the funerary banquet in the tombs of Theban officials dating from the 18th dynasty (15th -14th cents. BC). The early pictures show the tomb's occupant with his spouse as the host in front of a table loaded with dishes of food and faced by their guests in several rows. Servants adorn them with flowers and bring wine and food, pleasant-smelling ointments and utensils for ha…
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Bantia
(111 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Social Wars Apulian-Lucanian city (Βαντία;
Bantía: Plut. Marcellus 29,1), near Venosa (Liv. 27,25,13; Hor. Carm. 3,4,15; Porph. Acron), today Banzi.
Municipium between 80 and 60 (CIL I2 582 with CIL IX 416).
Templum
augurale, necropoleis of the 7th-4th cents. BC. M. Claudius Marcellus fell between B. and Venosa in the battle against Hannibal (Liv. 27,27,7; Plut. Marcellus 29). Garozzo, Bruno (Pisa) Bibliography A. Bottini, Osservazioni sulla topografia di Banzi preromana, in: AION 2, 1980, 69-82 M. Torelli, Una nuova…
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Baphyras
(57 words)
[German version] (Βαφύρας;
Baphýras). River in Pieria, rising at Mount Olympus, then named Helicon, and discharging into the Aegean east of Dion. After an underground run of about 5 km, it continued above ground, and was navigable from Dion (Paus. 9,30,8). Errington, Robert Malcolm (Marburg/Lahn) Bibliography N. G. L. Hammond, A History of Macedonia 1, 1972, 125.
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Baptism
(1,097 words)
[German version] I. Non-Christian There are analogies to the Christian baptism (βάπτισμα;
báptisma or βαπτισμός;
baptismós, Lat.
baptisma or
baptismus) in the history of other religions: rituals involving immersion in, or sprinkling with water and cleansing rituals were widespread prior to and alongside Christianity. However, these rituals followed different procedures and were interpreted differently, even though from the Christian point of view they were seen as a satanic mockery of the Christian baptism (Tert. …
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Baptism, symbol of.
(381 words)
[German version] Symbols of baptism are the professions of faith (= creed), which were spoken during or in conjunction with a baptism. The assumption of older scholars that NT professions of faith such as Rom 10,9 or Phil 2,11 were connected with baptisms, are not supported by any documentation apart from a single interpolation dating from the late 2nd cent. (Acts 8,37). Set formulae for the profession of faith during baptism are documented from the early 3rd cent., but originally they were not spoken by the celebrant himself. The earliest clear confirmation of the baptismal symbol (
symbo…
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Baptisterium
(605 words)
[German version] A. Terminology The Latinized Greek term
baptisterium (βαπτιστήριον;
baptistḗrion, from βαπτίζω;
baptízō, ‘dip’) was first used by Pliny (Ep. 2,17,11) for a bathing pool; in Greek literature, however, this meaning of the word is unknown. Nielsen, Inge (Hamburg) [German version] B. Bathing pool In sources related to Roman baths ( Thermae [1]) the term baptisterium appears very rarely;
piscina is more widely used. Such cold water pools were usually rectangular or apsidal and placed in a recess (Plin. Ep. 5,6,25; 2,…
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Baquates
(103 words)
[German version] A Mauritanian tribe (
gens Baquatium) [1. 2851] that probably lived in the east and south of Mauretania Tingitana. Ptol. 4,1, 10, the It. Ant. 2,2f. and the Liber generationis (1,197,65 Mommsen) link it with the tribe of the Macenites or Μακανῖται (
Makanîtai) and Massennae, Iulius Honorius (cosmographia B 47) and the
Provinciarum laterculus codicis Veronensis (14,4f.) with the Barbares, i.e. the Bavares. The Romans allowed the freedom-loving B. their independence and treated them as allies; Inscr. latines d'Afrique 609. Huß, Werner (Bamberg) Bibliography
1 H. D…
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Barabara
(56 words)
[German version] (
Barbara, also
Barbare). Port city at the mouth of the Indus (Ptol. 7,1,59), Ἐμπόριον Βαρβαρικόν or Βαρβαρική (
Empórion Barbarikón,
Barbarikḗ), Peripl. M. Rubr. 38f., old Indian
Varvara. B. appears to have been the main port of the Indus region, but has disappeared without a trace within the delta area. Karttunen, Klaus (Helsinki)
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Barba
(21 words)
[German version] Roman cognomen (‘the Beard’) of the Cassii, Lucretii, Sulpicii and other families (ThlL 2,1727f.). Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum)
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Barba Jovis
(152 words)
[German version] Type of houseleek
Sempervivum tectorum (ἀείζωον;
aeízōon) with yellow blooms and fleshy, evergreen and moist leaves (Theophr. Hist. pl. 1,10,4 and 7,15,2); derives its name from its heavy covering of hairs. According to Dioscorides 4,87-88 [1. 247ff.] = 4,88-89 [2. 418f.], the leaves of both types (Lat.
sedum in Plin. HN 25,160-163) i.a. served externally as cooling and astringent medicines for sores and wounds. Democritus is supposed to have recommended the juice to treat seeds (Plin. HN 18,159). In HN 16,76 Plin. means, however, the bushy silverbush
Anthyllis Ba…
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Barbaria
(144 words)
[German version] (Βαρβαρία;
Barbaría). Somalian north coast, according to Peripl. M. Erythraei 3; 7 (GGM 1, 261; 263). There were no ports, but good landing places, like Aualites, Malao, Mundu, Mosylon and Aromata. Also cf. Cosmas Indikopleustes (2,26; 29; 45; 48; 49; 50; 64) for the location. The name B. appears to have been preserved in the name of the city Berbera, the old emporium Malao (Ptol. 4,7,10). Behind Opone, today Ras Hafun, the coastal area called Azania started, which ended at Rhapto…
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Barbarians
(1,945 words)
[German version] Initially the term B. refers, from a Greek perspective, to groups speaking foreign languages. ‘Hellenes-Barbarians’ fit as ‘asymmetrical alternative terms’ [5. 218-229] into a pattern well known in ethnology: foreigners who are different are termed B. and distinguished from one's own culture by means of a value judgement based on strongly ethnocentric and hellenocentrically determined concepts. The antithesis is more frequently comprehensible, with the ancient image of B. having …
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Barbaron Hyphasmata
(142 words)
[German version] (βαρβάρων ὑφάσματα;
barbárōn hyphásmata). The Greeks called the valuable Median-Persian robes, materials, blankets i.a., with colourful ornaments, detailed figurative decorations, hybrid and fable creatures
barbaron hyphasmata (BH
). The BH arrived in Greece through commerce (Aristoph. Vesp. 1132ff.), as loot (Hdt. 9,80) or gifts (Ath. 2,48d). BH were donated as votive offerings to sanctuaries (Paus. 5,12,4) or they were worn as luxury robes as a demonstration of wealth and power. The BH led to changes in…
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Barbatius
(96 words)
Rare plebeian gentilicium, which has been verified since the first cent. BC (Schulze 349; ThlL 2,1728). [German version] [1] B. Philippus Slave and Praetor in the Late Republic an escaped slave, became
praetor (Dig. 1,14,3; Suda B.109; cf. Cass. Dio 48,34,5) (in late republican times?). [German version] [2] B. Pollio, M. Quaestor 41 BC as
quaestor pro praetore of M. Antonius disassociated himself from him in 41 BC (RRC 517,1-3; App. B Civ. 5,120f.; cf. Cic. Phil. 13,3); possibly the same as the curule aedile and founder of the puteal of Iuturna (ILS 9261).
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