Brill’s New Pauly
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Subject: Classical Studies
Edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider (Antiquity) and Manfred Landfester (Classical Tradition).
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
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Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Libanius
(1,811 words)
[German version] A. Life L. from Antioch/Syria, AD 314-393, is the most outstanding Greek rhetor of the late Imperial period. The most useful biographical data are contained in L.'s work itself, especially in his letters, but also in his speeches with autobiographical topics, esp. or. 1 and 2. Furthermore, there are references in contemporary writings (among others by Iulianus [11] and Iohannes [4] Chrysostomos), a
Vita by Eunapius and the Byzantine tradition, probably largely based on the latter (Zosimus, Zonaras, Suda
et al.). L. was born in 314 as the son of a highly respec…
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Libanomanteia
(14 words)
see Divination [German version] Libanos see Weihrauch see Incense Podella, Thomas (Lübeck)
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Libanus
(275 words)
[German version] (Λίβανος/
Líbanos, Lat.
Libanus). Mountain range in northern Syria between the Mediterranean coast and the Antilibanos in the interior. The name (Hebrew
lebānôn, Ugaritic
Lbnm, Akkadian
Labnāna, Arabic
Lubnān) derives from the Semitic root *
lbn ‘white’, i.e. the ‘white mountain’. The tale of L.' descent from a giant in Philo of Byblus (Euseb. Praep. evang. I,10,9) is mythological. The earliest information is found in OT and Assyrian sources. The Lebanon extends for about 160 km almost parallel to the coast. Its highest elevation with 3126 m is Ǧeb…
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Libarna
(98 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Theatre Ligurian town in
regio IX located on the
via Postumia (
nobile oppidum, Plin. HN 3,49), modern Serravalle Scrivia.
Municipium, later probably
colonia (CIL V 7428),
tribus Maecia. Possibly renewed by Constantinus [3] in AD 410 ([1] on Sozom. Hist. eccl. 9,12,4). Remains: theatre, amphitheatre,
insulae, baths, forum, aqueduct, graves. Salomone Gaggero, Eleonora (Genoa) Bibliography
1 G. Chr. Hansen, in: J. Bidez (ed.), Sozomenus, Kirchengesch. (GCS N.F. 4), 21995, 545. G. Forni (ed.), Fontes Ligurum et Liguri…
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Libation
(773 words)
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt Since sacrifices were primarily intended to ensure that the daily needs of the gods were met, not only victuals but also beverages (generally water, beer, wine) were an essential component of regular sacrifices to the gods, as well as of sacrifices offered to the dead. Both in Egypt and in Mesopotamia, libation and terms used for libation stand as
pars pro toto for sacrifice. This may have stemmed originally from the fact that for people living at a subsistence level the libation of water constituted their only opport…
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Libel
(97 words)
[German version] Libel was prosecuted as serious injury to the character in both Greek (Attic) and Roman law. In Athens, libel may have come under
kakēgoría (cf. also
loidoría ) and have led to a fine in a private suit. In Roman law, libel was likewise a civil offence as a form of
iniuria (a wrongful act). Possibly related to libel was the
carmen famosum (‘defamatory poem’) of the Twelve Tables (
tabulae duodecim ). An aggravated form of libel was the Roman
calumnia (false accusation), which could lead to harsh punishments. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)
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Libella
(98 words)
[German version] Diminutive of
libra , ‘little pound’. Like the Sicilian
litra , it denotes a tenth of a silver unit, from the early 2nd cent. BC the
as as a tenth of the
denarius and then of the
sestertius . The term
libella was only used in small-change calculations.
Libella was used for any small coin or, in the phrase
heres ex libella (Cic. Att. 7,2,3), the heir of a tenth share. Stumpf, Gerd (Munich) Bibliography M. Crawford, Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic. Italy and the Mediterranean Economy, 1985, 147f. Schrötter, s.v. L., 352.
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Libellis, a
(186 words)
[German version] The offices of the imperial court included an office primarily responsible for law-related complaints. This office dealt with judicial complaints addressed specially to the emperor as an instance of appeal, whereas working on imperial decisions on petitions as well as rescripts principally was a matter of other offices (
epistulis, ab ). Its purview also included suits which were decided at the imperial court as the primary instance, if the emperor assumed jurisdiction, such as proceedings of
crimen laesae maiestatis (
lèse majesté) or
maledictio Caesaris (‘slande…
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Libera
(98 words)
[German version] The consort of Liber; as he is the god of male fertility, so she is the goddess of female fertility (Aug. Civ. 6,9). She belongs to the Aventine triad of Ceres, Liber and L. (Fast. Caeretani, CIL I 1, 212) and is venerated together with Liber, at the Liberalia and at wine festivals [1. 256ff.]. In accordance with the identification of Liber with Dionysius L. is equated with Ariadne (Ov. Fast. 3,512). For bibliography see Liber. Prescendi, Francesca (Geneva) Bibliography
1 O. de Cazanove, Jupiter, Liber et le vin latin, in: RHR 205, 1988, 245-265.
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Liberalitas, largitio
(1,766 words)
[German version] A. Etymology and development of the word's meaning The term
liberalitas (=
li.) denotes, on an abstract level, an attribute (cf. Sen. Dial. 7,24,3:
... quia a libero animo proficiscitur, ita nominata est), in a particular case an act of generosity. The term
largitio (=
la.) belongs to the area of gifts, as does
li.; derived from the adjective
largus (in the original sense of a freely flowing spring, Cic. Off. 2,52)
la. usually signifies the distribution of gifts. In the political vocabulary of the late Republic
la., seen as a gift by means of which a particular purp…
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Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum
(263 words)
[German version] (LAB or
Ps.-Philo). Jewish work, probably originated between AD 70 and 132 in Palestine. The position of the author is clearly shaped by the loss of the Second Temple after its destruction by the later emperor Titus. The text is only preserved in a Latin translation (before the 5th cent.) that is based on a Greek text; the original was in Hebrew. The
LAB is an interpretative retelling of biblical history (‘rewritten Bible’) from the Creation to Saul's death after which the text ends. Presumably it was conceived to extend to the destruction of…
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Liber glossarum
(354 words)
[German version] Modern term for an alphabetical Latin encyclopaedia from the late 8th cent. covering Linguistic notes to explanations of terms, the most comprehensive and most important educational aid of the Carolingian epoch; prototypes are the MSS Parisinus Lat. 11529/30 and Cambrai 693 (both late 8th cent.; cf. [4]). Concerning the origin of the glossary ( Glossography) in the surroundings of Corby, in Tours, and in the Carolingian court library, and concerning Alcuin as terminus post quem, …
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Liber Iubilaeorum
(369 words)
[German version] (usually called the ‘Book of Jubilees’ [Jub], sometimes also the
Leptogenesis, ‘Little Genesis’). Jewish work, originated in the 2nd cent. BC in Palestine. The book owes its name to the peculiar division of history into Jubilee periods (49 years each according to Lv 25), on the other hand to the fact that biblical history from Gn 1 to Ex 20 is essentially retold in an interpretative manner (‘rewritten Bible’). Only an Ethiopian translation is preserved complete, which is derived from a Gree…
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Liberius
(356 words)
[German version] [1] Roman pope 352-377 Roman pope 352-366. L.'s pontificate was burdened by the difficult dispute over Arianism. Emperor Constantius II banished L. to Beroea in 355, because he would not recant in Milan his support for the condemned bishop Athanasius of Alexandria, who was hostile to Arianism, whereupon Felix had himself appointed and ordained counter-bishop ( Felix [5] II.). The anguish of exile, reflected by the four letters of the spring of 357 recorded by Hilarius of Poitiers led…
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Liber, Liberalia
(560 words)
[German version] Liber Pater is an Italic-Roman god of nature, fertility, and wine. L. is attested archaeologically first on the inscriptions of the Praenestine cistae from the 4th cent. BC (CIL I 2, 563), then on a cippus from Pisaurium from the 3rd-2nd cents. BC (CIL I 2, 381). The historians report that L. was introduced from Greece into Rome in the year 496, when the Sibylline Books had recommended to transfer the triad of Demeter, Kore, and Iacchus - who correspond to the Roman deities Ceres,…
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Liber linteus
(91 words)
[German version] Etruscan book type in the form of a written linen cloth folded according to a fixed pattern. The so-called ‘Mummy-wrapping of Agram’ (
liber linteus Zagrabiensis) is preserved in the original with
c. 40 cm height and 340 cm preserved length containing a ritual text in calendric form ( Calendar; no earlier than the 3rd cent. BC). There are also pictorial and sculpted copies of
libri lintei in Etruscan graves, on sarcophagi and urns. Divination Prayon, Friedhelm (Tübingen) Bibliography F. Roncalli (ed.), Scrivere etrusco. Exhibition catalogue Perugia, 1985.
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Liber Pontificalis
(353 words)
[German version] A serially compiled collection of summarized biographies of popes, prefaced by a fictional correspondence between Damasus and Hieronymus. The at times semi-official character of this preface led to its wide distribution (usually under the title
Gesta or
Chronica pontificum) [3]. Although the earliest MSS (7th/8th cents.) contain the chain of popes up to Conon I (died 687), the oldest part ended most likely with Felix III (IV) (died 530). The latter was based on chronographical models such as the so-called
Index and the
Catalogus Liberianus (MGH AA 9,73-76). It fi…
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Libertas
(324 words)
[German version] [1] (Religion) Roman goddess of freedom Roman goddess of freedom; she is the embodiment of the personal freedom of citizens (Cic. Nat. D. 2,61). Her temple was located on the Aventine and was designated as
aedes Libertatis (Liv. 24,16,19) or as
aedes Iovis Libertatis (R. Gest. div. Aug. 19) [1. 870; 2. 107, 227]. It was founded by Ti. Sempronius Gracchus in AD 238 out of funds provided from fines. His son had a painting hung up there after his victory over the Carthaginians at Beneventum in the year 214, on which the Roman slaves freed after the battle were depicted; they wear the
p…
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Libethria, -um
(111 words)
[German version] (Λειβήθριον, Λιβήθριον;
Leibḗthrion,
Libḗthrion). Boeotian mountain range with a cult cave and spring sanctuary of the Muses and ‘L(e)ibethridian’ nymphs
c. 7 km from Coronea; either the part of Helicon situated in the south-west between the mountains Megali Lutsa (1,548 m) and Paliovuna (1,747 m) or the mountain range stretching from modern Coronea east to modern Petra. Sources: Paus. 9,34,4; Str. 9,2,25; 10,3,17; Verg. Ecl. 7,21 with Serv. Ecl. 7,21. Funke, Peter (Münster) Bibliography C. Bursian, Geogr. von Griechenland 1, 1862, 236 N. D. Papachatzis, Παυσανίο…
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Libias
(209 words)
[German version] (Λιβιάς;
Libiás, Latin
Livias, also
Iulias). Town in the eastern Jordan valley, the Aramaic name of which is
bet ramta, and which, according to Jewish tradition, is to be identified with the biblical
bet haran (or
haram; Nm 32:36; Jos 13:27) (jTalmud Shevi 9,2 [38d]). The Christian traditions of Hier. and Eus. (Euseb. On. 48,13ff.; Βηθραμφθά,
Bēthramphthá) follow this. Even if this identification is not certain,
bet ramta is undoubtedly identical with the town mentioned by Jos. (BI 17,10,6)
Bētharámata (Βηθαράματα), where Herodes [1] the Great owned a palac…
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Libici
(47 words)
[German version] Celto-Ligurian people on the left bank of the Padus (Po), who, along with others (Ligurian Salluvii: Liv. 5,35,2, or Sallii: Plin. HN 3,124), founded Vercellae (Pol. 2,17,4; Plin. HN 4,5; Ptol. 3,1,36; Liv. 21,38,7; 33,37,6: Libui). Sartori, Antonio (Milan) Bibliography Nissen, vol. 2, 174.
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Libitina
(227 words)
[German version] Roman goddess who supervises the fulfilment of funeral duties (Plut. Numa 12,1). The name L., the etymology of which is disputed [1], therefore denotes metaphorically death in poetry (Hor. Carm. 3,30,7 L.). L. was equated with Venus Lubentina (Varro Ling. 6,47). Plutarch (Quaest. Rom. 269b; Numa 12,1) based this identification on the fact that two conflicting phenomena such as death and birth - the latter is related to L. as the result of sexual love - must belong to the domain of a single divinity. In L.'s grove (
lucus Libitinae), probably located on the Esquiline, t…
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Libitinarii
(196 words)
[German version] was the name the Romans gave to undertakers because of their seat in the sacred grove of Libitina (
qui libitinam faciunt, ILS 6085,94). On behalf of the affected families (or the state: Sen. Dial. 9,11,10), they organized the burials and supplied the necessary implements as well as the personnel (partly slaves: Ulp. Dig. 14,3,5,8), e.g.
pollinctores , bearers, musicians (cf. Petron. Sat. 78,6), specialists for burning the corpses (
ustores). The funeral practices in the Roman cities of Italy were apparently similarly organized (ILS 6726 attests a bu…
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Libo
(33 words)
[German version] Roman cognomen, in the Republican period in the families of the Iulii, Livii, Poetelii and Scribonii, in the Imperial period in the Anni, Flavii, Livii, Scribonii. Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum)
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Libon
(267 words)
[German version] Greek architect of the early Classical period from Elis. According to Paus. 5,10,3, he built the Zeus temple in Olympia, which was begun in 472 BC and completed before 456 BC. With a stylobate of 27.68 m x 64.12 m and a height of about 20 m, it was the largest temple of Greece at that time. The circular hall with 6 x 13 columns and a regular intercolumniation encloses the well-balanced cella, which is linked to the circular hall through fronts. The design concentrated on the re…
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Libra
(249 words)
[German version] [1] Unit of weight (also
pondus, ‘pound’, metonymic ‘what has been weighted’; Greek equivalent: λίτρα/
lítra).
Terminus technicus for the unit of weight of 327,45 g of the Roman measuring system; a
libra corresponds to the
as , which in the duodecimal system was divided into 12
unciae of 27,28g [2. 706 fig. XIII]. The standard very likely remained unchanged until early Byzantine times, as evidenced by weighing coins of precious metals and silver implements. [3. 222]. As weights, we find
librae of bronze and of lead, also of stone. They are to be differentiated…
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Library
(5,672 words)
I. Library buildings [German version] A. Definition A library is a depository or building for books of all kinds. Libraries could be part of private houses, royal palaces, public and religious buildings ( Gymnasium, Forum, Thermae [1]), sanctuaries, or be independent buildings. Only few libraries have been secured or preserved, because most of their constituent elements, including bookcases (
armaria) and furnishings, were made of wood. Nielsen, Inge (Hamburg) [German version] B. Greece Book collections have been known in the Greek cultural area since the 6th cent. B…
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Library
(6,075 words)
Reitz, Christiane (Rostock) A. Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (CT) [German version] 1. In the West (CT) Already in Late Antiquity, the public and private libraries that still existed in Rome were supplemented by newly emerging ecclesiastical libraries. In addition to books needed for divine worship, Christian communities soon also had at their disposal archives of community life (lists of bishops, calendars, synod decrees, acts of martyrs and correspondence). Probably as early as the beginning of the 3r…
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Librator
(87 words)
[German version]
Libratores were Roman soldiers who went into battle with long-range weapons and are mentioned in Tacitus aside from the
funditores (Tac. Ann. 2,20,2; 13,39,3; cf. Sil. 1,317); sling-bullets made of lead (
glandes) were used as missiles. As can be seen from the inscriptions CIL VIII 2728 (= ILS 5795; cf. CIL VIII 2934 = ILS 2422), engineers from the legions (like Nonius Datus) were also called
librator; in Frontinus the term
librator is used for line engineers (Frontin. Aq. 105). Link, Stefan (Paderborn)
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Libripens
(146 words)
[German version] ‘Scale-holder’. Several formal acts of older Roman law (
Mancipatio ,
Nexum ,
solutio
per aes et libram) and legal transactions modelled on them (
Coemptio ,
Emancipatio
, testamentum per aes et libram etc.) required the involvement of a
libripens and five witnesses if they were to be valid. These had to be Roman citizens who were of age. Originally the
libripens probably actually weighed the unminted copper (
aes rude ) that served as a means of payment in the cash purchase transaction (
mancipatio). Later the weighing became symbolic and ultimately was reduced to…
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Libs
(192 words)
[German version] (Λίψ/
Líps). The west-south-west wind that on the twelve-point compass card of Aristotle blew from the setting point of the sun to the winter solstice (Aristot. Mete. 2,6,363b 19f.; [1. 2347, fig. 11]) and that Aristotle (De ventis 973b 11f.) and the Romans associated etymologically with Libya and therefore called
Africus (Plin. HN 2,119f. and 18,336). It was considered damp and was set against the
Aquilo (Plin. HN 2,125f.), it brought rain and storms, and through its blazing heat it destroyed the shoots of the vine [2]. On the compass card of Timosthenes this
Libónotos (A…
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Libum
(222 words)
[German version] (-us; Greek σποντίτης/
spontítēs etc.; small
libum:
libacunculus). (Honey) pastry, a kind of
placenta (sacrificial cake; Serv. Aen. 7,109). Types: [1];
strues (Fest. 407 L.) among others; cf. Umbr.
strusla ( Tabulae Iguvinae: [2]). Recipe: Cato Agr. 75. Introduced by Numa according to Enn. Ann. fr. 121 V. Production and sale by bakers of cakes,
libarii: Sen. Ep. 56,2; CIL IV 1768,
fictores : Varro, Ling. 7,44. Pictorial representations are not classifiable with certainty [3]. The
libum is a cult element: combination with liquid (
merum,
lac: wine, milk;
libum from
libar…
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Liburna
(445 words)
[German version] Towards the end of the Roman Republic the
liburna was the pirate ship of the Illyrian people of the Liburnians ( Liburni, Liburnia; cf. App. B Civ. 2,39; App. Ill. 3; cf. Veg. Mil. 4,33,4). Pompey [I 3] appears to have been the first who, in the course of his battles against the pirates, mobilized these vessels in 67 BC in the interests of Rome; Appianus characterized them as light and fast sailing long-boats. The
liburna already played an important part in the Civil War against Caesar (Caes. B Civ. 3,5,3; 3,9,1; Plut. Pompey 64,1; Plut. Cato Minor 54,5)…
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Liburni, Liburnia
(544 words)
[German version] People in northern Dalmatia between the Istrian Arsia (modern Raša) and the Titius (modern Krka; Plin HN 3,139) including the islands off the coast and the town of Promona claimed by the Dalmatae on the other bank of the Titius (App Ill. 34; cf. Ps.-Scymn. 21). The mountain ranges of Učka, Gorski Kotar and Velebit in the eastern hinterland separate L. from the Iapodes. In the 3rd cent. BC, the latter gained access to the Adriatic at the Bay of Kvran at the expense of the L. The …
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Libyarches
(134 words)
[German version] (Λιβυάρχης;
Libyárchēs). Title of the Ptolemaic governor of Cyrenaica, supplemented in inscriptions for PP VI 15064 (240/221 BC), PP VI 15776 (217/204), PP VI 15771 (under Ptolemy IV). Around 203/202 Polybius (15,25,12) shows a knowledge of the
libyárchēs
tôn katà Kyrḗnēn tópōn (‘for the areas near Cyrene’; PP VI 15082), which certainly does not mean the supervision of the Chora, but of the country with the cities. In the 2nd cent. the
libyárchēs is replaced by a
stratēgós. - The
libyárchai mentioned in PRevenue Laws,
c. 37, 5 are part of the financial administrat…
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Libyci montes
(76 words)
[German version] (Plin. HN 3,3; λιβυκὸν ὄρος;
libykòn óros, Hdt. 2,8; λιβυκὰ ὄρη;
libykà órē, Ptol. 4,5,10, Str. 17,819). Name of the mountains bordering the Nile valley on the west in contrast to the ‘Arabian’ mountain range of the east bank. According to the ancient geographers, the Nile valley often forms the border between Libya and Arabia and consequently between Africa and Asia. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (Berlin) Bibliography H. Kees, s.v. L.m., RE 13, 148.
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Libyes, Libye
(517 words)
[German version] (Λίβυες;
Líbyes, Λιβύη;
Libýē, Latin
Libya). However liberally the Greeks treated the term
Libýē in the course of the centuries [1], they were just as unconcerned in their use of the corresponding ethnicon as well. Indeed this is - in contrast to the toponym - not yet attested in the Homeric epics but the Greeks were familiar with the name as a description for their indigenous neighbours at the latest from the settlement of ‘Libya’ by colonists ( Colonization) from Thera in the 7th cent. BC (S…
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Libyon type
(178 words)
[German version] Coins of Numidian and Libyan mercenaries rebelling against Carthage 241-238 BC ( ‘Mercenaries' War’, Pol. 1,65-88), mostly minted over pieces of Carthaginian type. Treasure finds (Inv. of Greek Coin Hoards 2213, Sicily; 2281-82, Tunisia) confirm the classification. Reverse legend ΛΙΒΥΩΝ, types: 1. double shekel, obverse head of Zeus, reverse butting bull; 2. shekel ( Siqlu); 3. half shekel, obverse head of Hercules with the coat of a lion, reverse pacing lion; 4. bronze Hercules a…
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Libys
(110 words)
[German version] [1] One of the Tyrrhenian pirates One of the Tyrrhenian pirates who, together with them abducts Dionysius who is disguised as a drunken boy. As a punishment all pirates are transformed into dolphins by the wine god, except the helmsman Acoetes ( Acoetes [1]) who wants to keep them from the outrage (Ov. Met. 3,605-691; Hyg. Fab. 134). Frey, Alexandra (Basle) [German version] [2] Brother of Lysander, Spartan nauarch 403 BC Brother of Lysander, as Spartan nauarch he blockaded Piraeus in 403 BC in order to combat the revolt of Thrasybulus and his suppo…
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Libyssa
(68 words)
[German version] (Λίβυσσα;
Líbyssa, also τὰ Βουτίου;
tà Boutíou). Town on the north coast of the Gulf of Izmit on the river Libyssus (Λίβυσσος;
Líbyssos, modern Tavsançıl Deresi); nearby was the monument of Hannibal (Arr. FGrH 156 F 28; Plin. HN 5,148; Tzetz. Chil. 1,803ff.). Strobel, Karl (Klagenfurt) Bibliography Th. Wiegand, Zur Lage des Hannibalgrabes, in: MDAI(A) 27, 1902, 321-326 W. Ruge, s.v. L./Libyssos, RE 13, 203.
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Licates
(77 words)
[German version] (Λικάττιοι;
Likáttioi, Str. 4,6,8; Λικάτιοι;
Likátioi, Ptol. 2,12,4; Plin. HN 3,137). Vindelician tribe that probably settled on the upper course of the Lech ( Licca). The main town was Damasia. L. were still serving as auxiliary soldiers [1] in the Roman army around AD 160. Dietz, Karlheinz (Würzburg) Bibliography
1 RMD, 119, 170. TIR L 32, 84f. H. Wolff, Einige Probleme der Raumordnung im Imperium Romanum, in: Ostbairische Grenzmarken 28, 1986, 152-177, esp. 166.
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Licca
(27 words)
[German version] (Λικίας;
Likías). Righthand tributary of the Danube (Ptol. 2,12,1; 4; Venantius Fortunatus Carm. praef. 4, Vita Martini 4,642), modern Lech. Dietz, Karlheinz (Würzburg)
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Licentius
(89 words)
[German version] from Thagaste, son of Romanianus, a patron of Augustinus, probably accompanied him to Carthage and Rome. He is involved in the debate in the latter's dialogue
Contra Academicos. A poem in 154 hexameters is extant in which L. asks Augustine for sending his work
De musica, since he expects to get help for reading Varro's
Disciplinae. After AD 395 there are no longer any records about him. Gruber, Joachim (Munich) Bibliography Editions: A. Goldbacher, CSEL 34,1, 89-95. Bibliography: F. W. Levy, s.v. L., RE 13, 204-210.
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Lichas
(502 words)
(Λίχας;
Líchas). [German version] [1] Messenger of Hercules Herald of Hercules [1]; he brings Hercules the garment which Deianira, jealous of Iole, had painted with the blood of the centaur Nessus (Hes. Cat. fr. 25,20-25 M-W; Soph. Trach.; Bacchyl. 16; for possible precursors and variants, see [1]). The supposed love charm causes the death of Hercules, who, in his agony, smashes the innocent L. against a rock in the sea (Soph. Trach. 772ff.; Apollod. 2,7,7? corrupt text). Later sources (Ov. Met. 9,2…
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Licinia
(561 words)
[German version] [1] Of noble descent, wife of M. Porcius Cato [1] Woman of noble descent; by marrying her in 192 or 191 BC, M. Porcius Cato [1] rose into the aristocracy [1. 54] (Plut. Cato 20,1). Her son was M. Porcius Cato Licinianus. She probably died in 155. Strothmann, Meret (Bochum) Bibliography
1 A. Astin, Cato the Censor, 1978, 67; 105; 263. [German version] [2] In 153 BC accused of poisoning her husband In 153 BC ([1. 12]: 154 BC), she and another woman named Publicia were accused of poisoning their husbands; strangled by family members following the verdict…
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Licinianus
(201 words)
[German version] [1] [- - - ] L. Cos. Suff. between 149 and 160 AD Senator, whose funerary inscription has been preserved in CIL VI 1441 = XIV 2927 = VI Suppl. VIII Add. ad 1441. After commanding a legion and holding another office he became governor of Aquitania and
consul suffectus under Antoninus Pius, between
c. AD 149 and 160. Eck, Werner (Cologne) Bibliography Alföldy, Konsulat, 193 PIR2 L 169. [German version] [2] Lucius (Valerius) L. Friend of Martial, from Bilbilis From Bilbilis, like his friend, the poet Martial; a friend of Licinius [II 25] Sura as well. He was a w…
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Licinius
(11,186 words)
Name of probably the most important Roman plebeian family. The similarity to the Etruscan name
lecne and the links between the
gens and Etruria in historical times (L. [I 7]) suggest an origin in that region [1. 108, n. 3]; the name may, however, also be of Latin origin ( Licinus). The spelling with a double ‘n’ occurs not only in the Greek form Λικίννιος (
Likínnios), but also in Latin inscriptions [1. 108, n. 1]. In the annalistic historical records dealing with the early Republic, members of the family appear among the earliest people's tribunes, reaching their polit…
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Licinus
(136 words)
[German version] Originally a rare
praenomen, either of Etruscan origin or derived from the Latin adjective
licinus (‘curved backwards’, Serv. Georg. 3,55); hence the gentile name Licinius. Later, it occurs as a
cognomen, possibly with the meaning ‘hair combed backwards’ [1. 236; 2. 33], in the Republican period in the families of the Fabii and Porcii, in Imperial times with the Clodii (C. [II 6]), Larcii and Passieni. Also documented as a name for slaves, the most prominent of which is Caesar's freedman (C. Iulius) L., who in…
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Licitatio
(95 words)
[German version] The Latin term
licitatio, signifying a price offered during a sale, generally refers only to auctions; accordingly, the bidder is called
licitator. Bidding took place by raising a finger (
digito licitus sit: Cic. Verr. 2,3,27; cf. 2,1,141). Beyond that,
licitatio can generally denote the sale at auctions. In a figurative sense the word
licitatio denotes illegal trade or corrupt behaviour (Cic. Verr. 2,2,133; Suet. Nero 26,2). Auctiones; Purchase Andreau, Jean (Paris) Bibliography
1 M. Talamanca, Contributi allo studio delle vendite all'asta nel mondo an…
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Licium
(351 words)
[German version] (literally ‘thread’, ‘string’, ‘ribbon’). In Roman cultic and magical use, the functions of the
licium are twofold: it connects or binds, and it encircles or closes something or someone. In its connecting or binding function it is used primarily in love spells (cf. Verg. Ecl. 8,73ff.). The
licium also serves to enclose the voting area at convocations of the people (Varro, Ling. 6,86-88, 93 and 95; Paul Fest. 100,11 L.). However, it is more common or more important in its encircling or closing function, in which it has an apotr…
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Lictor
(479 words)
[German version] The
lictores (from
ligare = to bind; Greek
rhabdoûchos,
rhabdophóros = carrier of the rods) were Roman bailiffs (
apparitores ) of the higher magistrates and of some priests (Liv. 1,8.; Lucr. 3,996; 5,1234). They signify the latter's power by carrying the
fasces (bundles of rods with the executioner's axe). They are appointed for the term of office of the magistrate or permanently. Their number is determined by the rank of the official (consul 12, praetor 6, more in the Imperial period).
Lictores are free-born or freedmen, slaves cannot hold the office (Liv. 2,…
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Licymnius
(291 words)
(Λικύμνιος;
Likýmnios). [German version] [1] Son of Electryon Son of Electryon, half-brother of Alcmene, husband of Perimede, father of Argeius [1], Melas and Oeonus or, according to a new source [2], of Perimedes, Oeonus and Pero. After first seeking refuge together with the Heraclidae, with Ceyx in Trachis, he is killed by Tlepolemus in Argus (Hom. Il. 2,661-663; Pind. Ol. 7,27-31). As eponym of Licymna, the acropolis of Tiryns (Str. 8,6,11) - his name, like that of his mother Midea, indicates tha…
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Life expectancy
(861 words)
[German version] The term life expectancy (LE) is used in historical demography and population sociology to indicate how many years a person of a certain age has left to live under the mortality conditions in a specific society. It must be noted that this term in no way indicates the average age of death, and that the LE of a person changes significantly over the course of his or her life. In societies before the demographic transition (transition to a low birth and mortality rate), due to high mo…
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Lifting devices
(629 words)
[German version] Ever since large temples were built of stone in Greece (early 6th cent. BC), architects have been faced with the problem of lifting heavy blocks of stone, for the walls or the architrave, and column drums as far as the building plan demanded. In doing so, loads of significant weight often had to be dealt with, because stone, after all, weighs approximately 2.25 t/m3, and marble
c. 2.75 t/m3. In the Archaic age, blocks for the architrave weighed between 10 and 40 t. At first, the stones were put into place via a ramp, as is recorded for the constru…
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Ligarius
(356 words)
Roman
gens, originally from the Sabine area, from which only a few individuals can be identified, all of those in the troubles of the Civil War. [German version] [1] L., P. Partisan of Pompey, taken prisoner in 49 BC near Ilerda and pardoned when he promised neutrality, executed in 46 AD near Thapsus as he had broken his word Partisan of Pompey. Taken prisoner in 49 BC near Ilerda as an officer in the army of L. Afranius [1] and pardoned when he promised future neutrality. Again among Caesar's adversaries in Thessalia and Africa: Caesar had him, who had…
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Ligature
(134 words)
[German version] A graphic symbol, already attested in the earliest Greek papyri ( Papyrus) written in cursive (3rd cent. BC). It connects the last stroke of a letter with the first one of the following letter, sometimes combining the two, even changing the shape of the letters. Its usage is exclusively limited to cursive writing (rarely with semi-cursives), in which several letters combined by ligature can produce a single joined chain. The end of this chain is written exclusively as determined by graphic criteria and may not necessarily coincide with the end of syllables or words. Menci,…
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Liger
(151 words)
[German version] River in Gaul, modern Loire; rises on the
Cebenna mons . Strabo (4,1,1; 14; 4,2,1-3; 3,4; 4,3; 5,2) erroneously assumes its course as parallel to that of the Garumna, Ptolemy (2,2) describes it more correctly. Authors of antiquity assert that the river is open to shipping for about 2,000 stadia (about 370 km, more today) and that it served as a trade route between Britannia, Massilia and Italy. Further sources: Caes. B Gall. 3,9; 7,5; 55; 59; Plin. HN 4,107; Ptol. 2,8,1; 6; 11f; 14; Cass. Dio 39,40; 44,42 (Λίγρος;
Lígros); Auson. Mos. 461. Lafond, Yves (Bochum) Bibliography Ca…
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Lighthouses
(338 words)
[German version] This architecturally designed sea mark, Greek φάρος/
pháros, Lat.
pharus, had its precursors in the open fires mentioned as early as Homer (Od. 10,30 et passim). These were raised on pillars or struts, and marked the entrances of harbours (Piraeus, 5th cent. BC; Harbours, docks) or (rarely) dangerous coastal features (at the same time, misleading coastal fires had been a means used by pirates from time immemorial to cause ships to be stranded, with the aim of plundering them; Navigation;…
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Lighting
(723 words)
[German version] I. Near East and Egypt Near East: the lighting in the rooms was generally dim; exterior walls usually only contained windows high up, as documented primarily by architectural drawings, rarely by the original building. Light coming in through the doors probably sufficed for rooms adjacent to courtyards. Interior rooms, in particular larger architectural complexes, required special lighting by means of different roof levels and wall openings close to the ceiling, or by closable skylights…
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Light, metaphysics of
(420 words)
[German version] The metaphysics of light regards the essence of being (see Metaphysics) itself as light. Beings are therefore considered light-like and intelligible, the light perceived by the senses, on the other hand, only an image of this true light. The foundation of the metaphysics of light goes back to Plato, who in his allegory of the sun (Resp. 6,508a-509b) compares the idea of the good ( Ideas, theory of) with the sun: just as the sun casts light on the world of the senses, the idea of the good is the cause of ideas and the…
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Light reading
(1,030 words)
[German version] I. Definition of the term According to Horace [7], the task of literature is - besides instruction - entertainment (Lat.
delectatio; Hor. Ars P. 333-346). Ultimately, this goes back to Aristotle's [6] theory of rhetoric and was already used in the Peripatos for the view of literature. The entertaining character (τέρψις/
térpsis) of literature as a horizon of reception, however, is already apparent in Homeric epic and is also reflected in the debate over the utility and cognitive function of poetry ( Hesiodus, Solon [1], Gorgias […
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Ligures, Liguria
(593 words)
[German version] (Λίγυες;
Lígyes). Pre-Indo-European tribe, intermarried with Indo-European Celts, possibly immigrated from northern Europe (Plut. Marius 19,3-5) to northern Italy. Originally widespread in the western Mediterranean (Iberia, Gaul, northern Italy to Latium, Sicily), the L. were driven back by population shifts into the area between the Alps and the Padus (Po): remains of Old Stone Age cultures (e.g. the caves of Balzi Rossi, Arene Candide); Lepontic inscriptions; terminology, onomas…
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Ligurian
(186 words)
[German version] Language of the Ligures (Greek Λίγυες;
Lígyes) who are regarded by ancient authors as the original population of the northern Mediterranean coast between the Pyrenees and Etruria. The name
Liguria, which refers to the furthest south-west of upper Italy, provides a definite link with the name of the people. We know next to nothing about the pre-Roman language of this region, and there are no extant texts; typical of personal names on Latin inscriptions, which are attested only in Liguria, are the suffixes
-anius and
-elius; the same area is perhaps the core territo…
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Ligurius
(112 words)
Uncommon
gentilicium name that is unlikely to be related to the tribe of the Ligures and that is epigraphically attested during the Republic in Rome (CIL I2 1092) and Praeneste (CIL I2 1449). [German version] [1] L., A. Friend of Caesar and the brothers of Cicero, died in 47 BC Friend of Caesar and the brothers of Cicero (Cic. Att. 11,9,2), died during the Civil War in 47 BC (Cic. Fam. 16,18,3f.). Frigo, Thomas (Bonn) [German version] [2] L., Cn. Military tribune in 197 BC Fell in 197 BC as military tribune in the battle against the Ligurians in Gallia Cisalpina (Liv. 33,22,8). Frigo, Thomas (Bon…
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Ligus
(43 words)
[German version] Roman
cognomen (‘Ligurian’), in the Republican period in the families of the Aelii (Aelius [I 5 and 6]), Octavii and other (unknown) families. Elvers, Karl-Ludwig (Bochum) Bibliography Kajanto, Cognomina, 196 D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Onomasticon to Cicero's Letters, 1995, 63.
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Lilaea
(206 words)
[German version] (Λίλαια;
Lílaia, Ptol. 3,14,4; Λίλαιον;
Lílaion, schol. Pind. Pyth. 1,121). City in Phocis at the Cephisus sources (Hom. Il. 2,523; Theopomp. FGrH 115 F 385; Str. 9,2,10; Paus. 10,35,5); named after the daughter of the river god Cephisus (Paus. 10,33,4); cf. the coins of L. [1. 17f.]; HN 339; 343). L. lies on the north-eastern slope of the Parnassus in a strategically favourable position on the traffic axis between the upper Cephisus valley and the Pleistus valley,
c. 33 km from Delphi (Paus. 10,33,2). Finds come from the prehistoric to the Late Helladic a…
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Lily
(318 words)
[German version] The lily, which was already used as a decorative flower in Cretan-Mycenaean art, λείριον/
leírion - from this Latin
lilium - or κρίνον/
krínon (Dioscorides; Theophr.) and κρινωνία/
krinōnía (Theophr. Hist. pl. 2,2,1). The adjective λειριόεις/
leirióeis (‘lily-like’ or ‘tender’) is used by Homer Il. 13,830 ironically for the skin of Ajax and 3,152 for the song of the cicadas, as well as Hes. Theog. 41 for that of the Muses. Persephone picks a lily (H. Hom. 2,427). Hdt. 2,92, however, calls the Egyptian Lotus
krínon. In Plin. HN 21,22-26 (according to Theophr. 6,6,8…
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Lilybaeum
(276 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Sicily | Christianity | Coloniae | Etrusci, Etruria | Commerce | Phoenicians, Poeni | Punic Wars | Punic Wars (Λιλύβαιον/
Lilýbaion, Λιλύβη/
Lilýbē; Latin
Lilybaeum, -on). Foothills (modern Capo Boeo) and town (modern Marsala) in the most western part of Sicily,
c. 140 km from Carthage; founded by the Carthaginians and heavily fortified after the Punic base Motya had been destroyed in 397 BC by Dionysius I. The fortress defied repeated attacks by the Greeks (in 368 under Dionysius, …
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Limbus
(88 words)
[German version] Ribbon, braid or trimming with a wide variety of meanings.
Limbus describes the head band and the belt and even more so the edging and hem on garments (Ov. Met. 6, 127; Verg. Aen. 4,137) that could also be colourful or made of gold (Ov. Met. 5, 51). The band that runs across the celestial globe and contains the zodiac was also called the
limbus (Varro, Rust. 2,3,7, Zodiac).
Limbi were also the cords on the nets of hunters and fishermen. Hurschmann, Rolf (Hamburg)
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Lime
(576 words)
[German version] The technique used by the Greeks, of binding the individual blocks in quarried-stone walls by means of variously formed metal clamps, was adopted by the Romans for their monumental architecture. Besides that, they early on used mortar made of lime and sand as a bounding agent in house building. Thus, lime, which in Greece had been used primarily for the roughcast of buildings, acquired greater importance as a building material in the Roman period. Lime is obtained from limestone by burning at temperatures of some 1000° C; the calcium carbonate (CO3Ca) turns into calciu…
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Limenia
(130 words)
[German version] (Λιμενία;
Limenía). City on the north coast of Cyprus [1]. L. also appears under the names Limen and Limnitis in early Christian texts, from which the existence of a harbour is apparent (discussed in [1. 17-20]); this speaks against the inland location suggested by Str. 14,6,3. Remains near the modern Limniti show a short-term settlement as early as the Neolithic [2]. At the mouth of the river is a sanctuary with finds from the Archaic to Hellenistic periods [3]. Senff, Reinhard (Bochum) Bibliography
1 A. Westholm, The Temples of Soloi, 1936
2 E. Gjerstad, Petra tou Limni…
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Limenius
(167 words)
[German version] [1] Choral lyric poet from Athens, 2nd cent. BC (Λιμήνιος;
Limḗnios) from Athens. Choral lyric poet, composer of a paean to Apollo (127 BC), which is preserved in an inscription on the treasury of the Athenians at Delphi. Besides the text itself, the notes of the tune for the kithara accompaniment are also provided: Paeonic-Cretan rhythm, the word accent taken up by the melody, highest variability in the use of keys. Metre; Athenaeus [7] Käppel, Lutz (Kiel) Bibliography E. Pöhlmann, Denkmäler altgriech. Musik, 1970, 68-76 M. L. West, Ancient Greek Music, 1992, 293-301 L. …
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Limes
(12,382 words)
[German version] I. General In the religious and administrative theory of the land surveyors, the Latin word
limes denoted the path marking the boundary between two pieces of land, while in military and political usage (Tac. Ann. 1,50; Frontin. Str. 1,3,10) it meant the border between Roman and non-Roman territory (SHA Hadr. 12). Over recent years, research has led the military connotation of the term
limes, which has been used almost exclusively from the 19th cent., to be expanded to comprehend also the historico-geographical and socio-economic fields. Where the
limites were origin…
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Limes; Hadrian's Wall
(2,097 words)
[English version] Of all the border fortifications erected as
limites of the empire by Roman military architects during the Imperial era, the complex system of the
vallum Hadriani (fig. 1) -- consisting of ditches and wall (partly of stone, partly of turf), a
via militaris which connected the auxiliary bases and mile castles, and the so-called vallum as an inland boundary -- forms probably the most obvious monument of this type in the entire
Imperium Romanum. In Great Britain, it is rightly pointed out that the prominent remains of this border line, which was superimpo…
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Limes; Limes studies
(6,634 words)
[English version] With its nearly 550 km, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes is one of the most significant monuments of early history. Starting from Rheinbrohl, it crossed the present-day German states of Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria. The term Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes itself was introduced in the 19th cent., being derived from the Roman provinces of
Germania Superior and
Rhaetia, whose eastern and northern borders respectively were reached by the Limes, after numerous changes, by the mid 2nd cent. Impressive remains of this Roman border…
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Lime-tree
(188 words)
[German version] (φιλύρα/
philýra, Latin
tilia, perhaps derived from πτελέα/
pteléa, ‘elm’). Three species, namely the summer, winter and silver lime tree, were known to the Greeks and Romans from their mountains and they described them very precisely. Theophr. Hist. pl. 3,10,4-5 and Plin. HN 16,65 were certainly wrong to differentiate a male form from a female one. The fairly soft wood (Plin. HN 16,207) served ‘1,000 purposes’ (Plin. HN 18,266), namely for boxes of all kinds, goblets, measures of volume …
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Limia
(125 words)
[German version] Coastal river south of Miño, modern Lima. According to [1], the name is Celtic. Ancient references: ‘Millia and Oblivio’, Mela 3,10; ‘Lethe’, Sil. Pun. 1,236; 16,476; ‘Oblivio’, Flor. Epit. 1,33,48; ‘L., Limaea and Aeminius’, Plin. HN 4,112; 115; Λίμιος, Ptol. 2,6,1; Λιμαία, Λήθης and Βελιών, Str. 3,3,4f.; Λήθης, App. Hisp. 301; 304. Explanations of the diversity of names are given by [2]; suppositions of a city L. and the residents of the river, the Lusitanian Limici, in [4]; on the sources in [3]. Barceló, Pedro (Potsdam) Bibliography
1 Holder, s.v. L.
2 Schulten, Land…
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Limitanei
(705 words)
[German version] General designation for the units of the late Roman army that had fixed garrisons in the border regions (
limites; see
limes ) of the Roman Empire. They were under the command of a
dux limitis, who was responsible for a section of the border, which often stretched over several territorial provinces. The term
limitanei is first recorded in an official document in AD 363 (Cod. Theod. 12,1,56); it was used to distinguish the territorial troops from the soldiers of the field army (
comitatenses ), which was not bound to a specific territory. The cre…
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Limitation
(1,518 words)
(
limitatio). [German version] I. Etruscan prerequisites To the Etruscans, the definition of real and symbolic space by drawing boundaries (
limites; Varro in Frontin. De agri mensura p. 27 L.) was a prerequisite for the correct interpretation ( Divination) and placement (foundation of cities) of signs: the interpretation of heavenly signs was based on their arrangement in sections of the co-ordinate axes which divide the heavens; the axes are spatially fixed by alignment to the co-ordinates (orientation). Ritual fo…
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Limnae
(329 words)
(Λίμναι;
Límnai). [German version] [1] Oldest sanctuary to Dionysus in the municipal area of Athens Oldest sanctuary to Dionysus ἐν Λίμναις (
en Límnais) in the municipal area of Athens south of the Acropolis (Thuc. 2,15,4), now localized in the area of the Makrygianni/Chatzchristou streets [2. 332 fig. 219, 379, 435]. The identification with a triangular temenos on the south-western slope of the Areopagus [1; 3] is obsolete [2. 274f. fig. 351]. The sanctuary was opened only on the second day of the Anthesteria, the 12th day of the month of Anthesterion. Lohmann, Hans (Bochum) Bibliograph…
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Limnaea
(133 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Acarnanians, Acarnania (Λιμναία;
Limnaía). Harbour town on a bay in the south-east of the Gulf of Ambracia near modern Amphilochia, from which a hollow of the valley leads into the Achelous plain (Pol. 5,5,14). In the 5th cent. an unfortified village (Thuc. 2,80,2; 3,106,2), in the 4th cent. the destination of the
theorodokoi (IG IV2 1,95 l. 8; SEG 36,331 l. 31-33), member of the Acarnanian League (IG IX 12,2, 588 l. 9). The fortified acropolis was connected to the harbour by ‘long walls’. There are no clues tha…
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Limnaeum
(88 words)
[German version] (Λιμναῖον;
Limnaîon, Latin Limnaeum). In 191 BC, the Romans and Philip V marched through eastern Thessaly to drive out Antiochus III and the Athamanians. During the siege of Pelinna, Philip also attacked L. which did not surrender until the Roman cavalry appeared (Liv. 36,13,9ff.). There is a lack of other information. L. has recently been localized near Vlochos above the swampy confluence region of the rivers Enipeus [2] and Peneius. Kramolisch, Herwig (Eppelheim) Bibliography J. Cl. Decourt, La vallée de l'Enipeus en Thessalie, 1990, 120f.
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