Brill’s New Pauly
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Subject: Classical Studies
Edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider (Antiquity) and Manfred Landfester (Classical Tradition).
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
English translation edited by Christine F. Salazar (Antiquity) and Francis G. Gentry (Classical Tradition)
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Brill´s New Pauly is the English edition of the authoritative Der Neue Pauly, published by Verlag J.B. Metzler since 1996. The encyclopaedic coverage and high academic standard of the work, the interdisciplinary and contemporary approach and clear and accessible presentation have made the New Pauly the unrivalled modern reference work for the ancient world. The section on Antiquity of Brill´s New Pauly are devoted to Greco-Roman antiquity and cover more than two thousand years of history, ranging from the second millennium BC to early medieval Europe. Special emphasis is given to the interaction between Greco-Roman culture on the one hand, and Semitic, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavonic culture, and ancient Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on the other hand. The section on the Classical Tradition is uniquely concerned with the long and influential aftermath of antiquity and the process of continuous reinterpretation and revaluation of the ancient heritage, including the history of classical scholarship. Brill´s New Pauly presents the current state of traditional and new areas of research and brings together specialist knowledge from leading scholars from all over the world. Many entries are elucidated with maps and illustrations and the English edition will include updated bibliographic references.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Soanes
(116 words)
[German version] (Σοάνες/
Soánes, Latin
Suani). First mentioned in Str. 11,2,14; 11,2,19, which locates them in the western Caucasus together with the Phtheirophagi ('fir-cone eaters') above the Colchi (Colchis) and counts them among the tribes who trade in Dioscurias; they were a war-like people who extracted gold from mountain streams (as also in Plin. HN 6,14; 6,30). In the 6th cent. AD the S. came under the sovereignty of Lazica (Procop. Goth 4,16,14; Agathias 4,30; Men. Protektor fr. 3 [1. 177,1…
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Brill’s New Pauly
Soap
(184 words)
[German version] Solid soap in the modern sense was unknown in Antiquity. For cleaning their bodies people used pumice, bran, bicarbonate of soda, oil, soda or clay - Cimolian earth was particularly well known (Aristoph. Ran. 712) - and water. The Greeks called these cleaning materials ῥύμμα/
rhýmma or σμῆγμα/
smêgma (there is no corresponding Latin term). In public bathing facilities washing materials were available on request from attendants (Aristoph. Lys. 377; Ath. 8,351e), or people brought them from home. As with modern soap, ancient wash…
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Sobek
(322 words)
[German version] (
śbk, Graecised as Σοῦχος/
Soûchos, cf. Damascius, Vita Isidori P 99) was the crocodile-headed chief god of the Faiyum. The most important local form was S. of Šedet (Crocodilopolis, from 256 BC Arsinoe [III 2], modern Madīnat al-Fayyūm). His cult was widespread; a temple to him (together with Haroeris) in Kom Ombo is particularly well-known. S. was considered the lord of the North. The goddess Neith is mostly named as the mother of S., and occasionally in the Faiyum the ephemeral crocodile deity Senui (
snwj, Graecised as Ψοσναυς/
Psosnaus: SB 6154,7 = 5827; [5. 8…
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Soccus
(90 words)
[German version] Slipper-like, light half-shoe (Catull. 61,10), probably adopted by the Romans from Greek areas (perhaps σύκχος/
sýkchos or συκχίς/
sykchís, Anth. Pal. 6,294). Originally a woman's shoe, it was also worn by 'effeminate' men (Suet. Cal. 52). Later Diocletian's Price Edict distinguished between
socci for men and women, in various colours. The
soccus was also considered to be a comedy actor's shoe (cf. Hor. Epist. 2,1,174; Hor. Ars 79 f.), so that
soccus became a synonym for comedy (as cothurnus for tragedy). Illustration of a
soccus under shoes. Hurschmann, Rolf (Ham…
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Social and Economic History
(4,439 words)
Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) [German version] A. The Enlightenment's Assessment of Ancient Society (CT) Although ancient society played a prominent role in Enlightenment discourse, clarification of historical fact was not always the primary consideration in the treatment of any particular theme; rather, Greek or Roman society was described and cited in various theoretical contexts as a model or classified historically to justify or refute particular philosophical, political or economic positions. Influenced b…
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Social conflicts
(2,089 words)
[German version] I. Definition SC are in the following understood as conflicts conducted between different social groups, in the course of which various forms of violence or threat arise. Attempts to collate ancient SC under generalizing headings such as 'Struggle of the Orders' or - primarily in Marxist scholarship - 'class struggles' [13] remain controversial [4; 8]. Gehrke, Hans-Joachim (Freiburg) [German version] II. Greece There is no explicit evidence of SC in the Mycenaean period - they are merely hypothetically postulated in the context of attempts…
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Socialism
(4,336 words)
Kloft, Hans (Bremen RWG) [German version] A. Preliminary Remarks (CT) Socialism is a phenomenon of the Modern Age. It is seen as an action-oriented economic, social and political concept which seeks to combine theory with practice. With the rise of industrialization and the mass destitution (pauperism) that went with it, in the course of the 19th cent. socialism developed into an alternative model that sought to overcome existing conditions, interpreted as being bourgeois capitalist in nature, in virtuall…
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Social politics
(938 words)
[German version] In modern industrial societies, the function of SP is to set up systems to prevent the occurrence of cases of hardship, and to protect individual citizens and groups of citizens from defined risks. A vital instrument of SP is social insurance, of the kind created in the German Empire between 1883 and 1889 (health insurance, accident insurance, old-age insurance); unemployment insurance followed during the Weimar Republic. Since that time, the actual concern in SP has been, on the …
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Social structure
(4,590 words)
[German version] I. Ancient Near East Social structure in the ancient Orient was determined by who controlled the fundamental means of production in an agrarian society, the arable land. The usual form of government in such societies was a patrimonial monarchy. Palaces and temples were the institutional centres dominating the economic and social structures and developments, especially in Egypt and Mesopotamia; all parts of society were directly or indirectly incorporated into this system. The existenc…
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Social Wars
(1,037 words)
Wars within or between ancient alliance systems (Socii; Symmachia; Symmachoi). The term does not include punitive expeditions by the leading power against individual alliance members. The following wars were already called SW (πόλεμος συμμαχικός/
pólemos symmachikós,
bellum sociale) in Antiquity: [German version] [1] War by Athens against allies of the 2nd Athenian League, 357-355 BC The war by Athens against seceded allies of the Second Athenian League from 357-355 BC, which put Athens into serious military and financial difficulties (Symmoria). Du…
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Societas
(534 words)
[German version] Society (κοινοπραξία/
koinopraxía) based on a contract, known to Roman law from the late Republic. In its origins, it was probably influenced by archaic forms of a community based on kinship, esp. the
consortium ercto non cito ('partnership by undivided inheritance') of brothers who did not wish to divide their father's estate (Gai. Inst. 3,154, v. also
communio ). However, this influence was no longer of import to the legal development of the
societas after the 2nd cent. BC. The
societas was created by the conclusion of a contract of consent (
consensus …
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Society of Dilettanti
(1,709 words)
Schwandner, Ernst-Ludwig (Berlin RWG) [German version] A. Beginnings (CT) In the 18th cent. it became customary in educated circles of the English aristocracy for young people to undertake study trips to Italy and especially Rome that often lasted for years (the
Grand Tour). As a result, there grew up in Rome a colony of Englishmen who loved art and Classical Antiquity and who devoted themselves not only to the study of art but to an extravagant Mediterranean lifestyle and the acquisition of antiquities as well. In memory of these time…
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Socii
(298 words)
[German version] Rome's allies in Italy and, in exceptional cases, also communities and individuals outside Italy were already known as
socii in antiquity. The
socii in Italy were listed in the
formula togatorum, a schedule which laid down the extent of the obligation to provide military contributions, as communities from which Rome was accustomed to require the provision of soldiers for the Roman army ('
socii nominis(ve) Latini quibus <sc.
Romani>
ex formula milites in terra Italia imperare solent':
lex agraria of 111 BC, FIRA 1, no. 8, ll. 21 and 50). The criterion for m…
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Socii (Roman confederation)
(849 words)
[German version] A. Definition The term "Roman confederation" or "Italic Federation" (Beloch) refers to the Roman manner of governing Italy during the Republic. The Romans themselves apparently had no name for this structure, in documents one encounters the paraphrase
socii nominisque (or
nominisve)
Latini quibus ex formula milites in terra Italia imperare solent [1]. Galsterer, Hartmut (Bonn) [German version] B. Participants Geographically, the confederation comprised the Apennine peninsula without the islands. The Ligurian and Gallic tribes of Upper Ita…
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Soclarus
(383 words)
(Σώκλαρος;
Sṓklaros). [German version] [1] Son of Plutarchus [2] of Chaeronea A son of Plutarchus of Chaeronea (not necessarily the eldest, perhaps named after Plutarch's friend(s) S. [2] and [3]) who was reaching adolescence at the time when his father wrote
How a young man should listen to poets (Plut. Mor. 15a). [1] assumed that he died young, as he is not mentioned again and Plutarch dedicated
On the Generation of the Soul in Timaeus to his brothers Autobulus and Plutarchus, not to Soclarus; he assumed that Plutarch alludes to the loss in the
Consolation to his Wife (Mor. 609a). The sil…
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Socrates
(6,685 words)
(Σωκράτης;
Sōkrátēs). [German version] [1] Sculptor from Thebes, c. 470 BC Sculptor from Thebes. He created a cult statue of Meter Dindymene for Pindar [2] in Thebes (Paus. 9,25,3) and therefore must have worked in the 'Severe Style' around 470 BC. Paus. 1,22,8 attributed a relief of the Charites and a Hermes Propylaios on the Acropolis in Athens to the philosopher S. [2] as the alleged sculptor. The relief of the Charites is identified as the model of a much-copied type. Because it is dated to around 470,…
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Socratics
(1,010 words)
[German version] The term 'Socratics' refers in a broad sense to all of those who, according to surviving evidence, had a close relationship to Socrates [2] (469-399 BC). In a narrower sense, it is limited to those known to have written philosophical works: Aeschines [1], Antisthenes [1], Aristippus [3], Euclides [2], Phaedo, Plato [1] and Xenophon. Ancient sources tell us a great deal about the personal relationships of these Socratics, both with Socrates and among themselves. Some is evidently b…
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Socus
(83 words)
[German version] (Σῶκος;
Sôkos). Trojan, son of Hippasus [2], challenges Odysseus to battle to avenge the death of his brother Charops [4] (Hom. Il. 11,430-433: one of the rare direct speeches by a 'minor' combatant). He wounds Odysseus so badly that he has to leave the battle field, but not before killing the fleeing S. and directing a sneering speech of triumph to him (ibid. 11,434-458). Nünlist, René (Basle) Bibliography P. Wathelet, Dictionnaire des Troyens de l'Iliade, vol. 2, 1988, s. v. S., 1001-1004.
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Sodales
(392 words)
[German version] Originally members of an association (Associations) in the broadest sense: the
suodales of Poplios Valesios, which appear in an inscription from Satricum (
c. 500 BC; CIL I2 4,2832a), could be companions, politically or religiously like-minded people [7; 8]. The majority of the evidence, however, relates to Rome in the Republican and Imperial Periods. In the Roman tradition the institution of
s. is ascribed to Romulus [1] (Sempronius Tuditanus fr. 3 Beck-Walter) or Numa (for
Salii and
Fetiales : Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2,70-72). The following
s. can be seen as religio…
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Sodamus
(137 words)
[German version] (Σώδαμος/
Sṓdamos) of Tegea. A number of sources, which can be traced to Strato of Lampsacus, 3rd century AD (fr. 146 f. Wehrli), and Clearchus (PSI IX 1093, cf. fr. 69d Wehrli), tell that the gnome Μηδὲν ἄγαν· καιρῷ πάντα πρόσεστι καλά ("Nothing too much; everything beautiful has its own measure") was ascribed to S. instead of Chilon [1]. An
epígramma handed down in schol. Eur. Hipp. 264 in the form of a single distich, permits the assumption that S. had an inscription with Chilon's saying mounted in the Temple of Athena in Tegea, parall…
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Sodom
(389 words)
[German version] (Hebr.
sedom; Gk. Σόδομα/
Sódoma, Lat.
Sodoma) appears, together with Gomorrah (
amorah), Admah (
admah), Zeboim (
ṣebojim) and Zoar (
ṣoar) in a military alliance of cities (Gn 14,8). Gn 19 tells of the destruction by fire and brimstone of the cities, apart from Zoar, as a divine punishment. There is no archaeological evidence of the cities; ancient tradition locates them at the southern end of the Dead Sea (Asphaltitis Limne). For ancient authors, the desert region there and the Dead Sea are among the
mirabilia of Judaea: plants crumble to ashes, the Dead Sea d…
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Sogdiana
(304 words)
[German version] (Σογδιανή;
Sogdianḗ). Region of the Achaemenid Empire between Oxus (Araxes [2]) and Iaxartes, part of the Sixteenth Satrapy; The inhabitants were called
Sogdianoí or
Sógdoi, Old Persian
Sug(u)da, Avestan
Su
γδ
a, Sogdian
Sughdh. The capital was Maracanda (modern Samarkand), the Achaemenid base for ruling eastern Iran. In Darius [2] II's building report on his palace in Susa S. is mentioned as the supplier of lapis lazuli and cornelian. S. played an important part in trade with the peoples of the Steppes and the …
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Sogenes
(36 words)
[German version] (Σωγένης;
Sōgénēs). Poet of New Comedy, reached the fifth rank at the Attic Dionysia in 183 BC with his play Φιλοδέσποτος ('His Master's Friend') [1]. Hidber, Thomas (Berne) Bibliography
1 PCG VII, 1989, 593.
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Soghitha
(48 words)
[German version] (also
Sogitha). A simple stanzaic form of Syriac verse, and a subcategory of the isosyllabic
maḏrāšā. The soghitha normally has stanzas of four lines, each of 7 or 8 syllables. An acrostic and/or a dialogue may also be present. Madrasha Brock, Sebastian P. (Oxford)
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Sohaemus
(411 words)
(Σόαιμος/
Sóaimos, Σόεμος/
Sóemos). [German version] [1] Ituraean, under Herodes [1] the Great, executed in 29 BC Ituraean (Ituraea), in a position of trust under Herodes [1] the Great, who in 30 BC gave him the duty of guarding him and, should he not return from his visit to Octavianus [1], of killing his wife Mariamme [1] and mother-in-law Alexandra. S. revealed the order to them and in 29 was executed by Herod (Jos. Ant. Iud. 15,185; 204-229). Bringmann, Klaus (Frankfurt/Main) [German version] [2] Tetrarch of the Ituraeans, 1st cent. AD Tetrarch of the Ituraeans (Ituraea) AD 38-49,…
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Soknopaiou Nesos
(110 words)
[German version] (Σοκνοπαΐου νῆσος/
Soknopaïou Nêsos; Egyptian
paj, later
t mj(.t), modern
Dīmā). Town in the Faiyum; the chief god was Sobek. Like Tebtynis, S. is primarily significant because of its papyri (Greek documents, temple library with Hieratic and a large number of Demotic religious, literary and scientific papyri,
c. 1st-2nd cent. AD) [2]. Their edition is still in progress [4]. von Lieven, Alexandra (Berlin) Bibliography
1 A. E. R. Boak, S. N., 1935
2 E. A. E. Reymond, Demotic Literary Works of Graeco-Roman Date, in: FS zum 100jährigen Bestehen der …
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Sol
(1,794 words)
(the Roman sun god, Greek Ἥλιος/
Hḗlios). I. Graeco-Roman [German version] A. General summary Although S. is one of the few undisputed Indo-European deities of the pantheon (cf. Gallic
sulis, Gothic
sauil, Old High German
sôl, Greek *σαέλιος/*
sawélios = ἥλιος/
hḗlios; [1]), the public cult of the sun played only a subordinate role in Rome and the Greek world, until the time that political developments led to an affinity between S. and the concept of monarchy (ruler cult). Gordon, Richard L. (Ilmmünster) [German version] B. Roman Republic According to Varro, the cult of the 'Sun'…
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Soldier emperors
(177 words)
[German version] The term SE was first [1. 13] used to describe the emperors "from the end of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of that of Diocletian" (AD 192-284), but today the Severan dynasty (AD 193-235; Septimius [II 7]) is generally kept separate (as already [2. 393-468]: Severans = military monarchy, subsequently military anarchy) and only the period from Maximinus [2] Thrax (235-238) to Diocletianus (284-305) is called the period of the SE or the "Crisis of the 3rd cent. AD." The t…
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Soldiers' pay
(831 words)
Sources give only little information about the introduction and development of SP in Greece and in Rome, and they contain only few precise figures for the amounts. Hence modern works on SP are largely based on assumptions and estimates resulting from them. [German version] I. Greece In Greece, soldiers of the citizen contingent of a polis probably did not receive regular money until the 5th cent. BC, and this was initially used to pay for provisions (σιτηρέσιον/
sitērésion ); at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War the Athenian
hoplítai besieging Potidaea were given pay (μισθός/
misthós…
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Soli
(466 words)
(Σόλοι;
Sóloi). [German version] [1] City on the northern coast of Cyprus This item can be found on the following maps: Theatre | Kypros | Diadochi and Epigoni | Education / Culture City on the northern coast of Cyprus at modern Karavostasi with a harbour which was also usable in winter (Scyl. 103; Str. 14,6,3). According to Plut. Solon 26,2 named after Solon [1], who advised the king Philocyprus of Aepeia to relocate his unfavourably situated city to the plain. But according to Str. loc. cit. S. was founded by Phalerus and Ac…
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Solicia
(143 words)
[German version] Place in Gallia Belgica, modern Soulosse-sous-Saint-Élophe, on the road from the Rhodanus to the Rhenus between Andematunnum and Tullum (modern Toul) in the territory of the Leuci (It. Ant. 358,9; CIL XIII 4679); another name was
Solimariaca, derived from a deity Solima or Solimara (It. Ant. 385,8; CIL XIII 4681; 4683). Inscriptions provide information on trade and industry (CIL XIII 4678-4703; [1. 4845-4890; 2]). In the 4th century AD a
castrum was built on the Saint Élophe hill. In the Carolingian period S. was the main town of the
Pagus Solocensis. Schön, Franz (Reg…
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Solidus
(790 words)
[German version] (Latin, 'whole', of metals 'solid', e.g.
aurei solidi: Apul. Met. 10,9), main coin of Roman currency of Late Antiquity. A lighter gold coin introduced by Constantine (Constantinus [1] I) to replace the
aureus because of rising gold prices. It was introduced from AD 309 at Trier, from 313 in Constantine's entire half of the Empire and from 324 throughout the Empire. Greek χρύσιον νόμισμα/
chrýsion nómisma (lit. 'golden' coin; from the 7th cent. only
nomisma; numerous bynames referring to its high quality or to coin images [5. 1229]). The
solidus weighed 1/72 Roman pound…
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Solinus
(653 words)
[German version] C. Iulius S. Grammarian and compiler of the 3rd (end) or the 4th century AD. Author of the
Collectanea rerum memorabilium ('Collections of Curiosities'), dedicated to (Oclatinius ?; cf. [1]) Adventus (not the
cos. of 218). The work, which inclines in the first part towards mythical history and in the second towards paradoxography, manifests a 'national' programme in its structure. It begins with a history of Roman origins and follows with a periegesis, starting in Italy, of the
oikoumene as a framework for relaying curiosities. This works…
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Solium
(184 words)
[German version] [1] Seat Roman high seat with foot-, arm- and backrest, throne; the
solium was the seat of kings (Ov. Fast. 3,358; 6,353) and, presumably as early as in Etruria, the symbolic seat of a
pater familias . It was inherited from father to son, selling it was considered shameful (
Salutatio ). Hurschmann, Rolf (Hamburg) Bibliography F. Prayon, Frühetrurische Grab- und Hausarchitektur, 1975, 111 f. Th. Schäfer, Imperii Insignia. Sella curulis und Fasces. 29. Ergänzungsheft MDAI(R), 1989, 26 f. [German version] [2] Bathtub Roman bathtub for one (Mart. 2,42; Vitr. 9 …
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Sollium
(78 words)
[German version] (Σόλλιον;
Sóllion). Originally a Corinthian settlement (Thuc. 2,30,1: πόλισμα; Steph. Byz. s. v. Σ.: πολίχνιον) with a harbour in the area of the Plagia peninsula, which is to the east of Leucas; unlocated (suggestions: [1. 21 f.]). Mentioned only when captured by the Athenians in 431 BC, after which S. was permanently annexed to Palaerus (Thuc. 2,30,1; 5,30,2). Fell, Martin (Münster) Bibliography
1 M. Schoch, Beiträge zur Topographie Akarnaniens in klassischen und hellenistischen Zeit, 1997. Chr. Wacker, Palairos, 1999, 47-54.
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Solomon
(684 words)
[1] Son of King David [German version] I. Old Testament S. (Hebrew
Šelomō, literally 'his peace' or 'his restitution'). Successor to David [1] (2 Sam 9-1 Kg 2) in the second third of the 10th cent. BC. His 40-year reign (1 Kg 11:42, cf. 1 Kg 2:11) is of ideal duration, resulting from his esteem as a wise man and temple-builder (1 Kg 3:6-8, cf. Sir 47:12-18). He is criticized for building altars to foreign deities (1 Kg 11:1-13) and his introduction of forced labour (1 Kg 5:27-32). Stories about S. (1 Kg 3-1…
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Solon
(2,951 words)
(Σόλων/
Sólōn). [1] S. of Athens Poet, legislator, c. 600 BC [German version] I. Life griech. Gesetzgeber, um 600 v. Chr. S. (b.
c. 640 BC), an Athenian of the family of the Medontidae, supposedly related through the maternal line with Peisistratus [4], the most important Greek legislator (alongside the legendary Spartan Lycurgus [4]) of the Archaic period and the first prominent Athenian poet. S. first emerged around 600 BC, when he successfully appealed for the conquest of Salamis [1] during the conflict with Megara…
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Solus
(211 words)
[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Theatre | Punic Wars (Σολοῦς/
Soloûs, Σολόεις/
Solóeis, Latin
Soluntum). City on the northern coast of Sicilia at Cannita near modern Santa Flavia about 20 km to the west of Palermo (burial finds from the 6th cent. BC). Like Motye and Panormus S. was one of the bases to which the Phoenicians, under pressure from Greek colonists, retreated at the turn from the 8th cent. BC to the 7th (Thuc. 6,2,6). Dionysius [1] I captured the city in 397 BC, and after a…
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Solymi
(98 words)
[German version] (Σόλυμοι;
Sólymoi). Tribe in eastern Lycia / southwestern Pisidia. Hom. Il. 6,184 and 204 mention the S. as enemies of Bellerophontes. Linguistically there is a relationship with Luwian [1. 4]. In the Hellenistic/Roman period Solymus, a son of Zeus, was worshipped as the ancestor of the S., primarily in Termessus on Mount Solymus. Zeus Solymeus had a cult there. The warrior hero Solymus was depicted on Imperial period coins of the city [2]. Brandt, Hartwin (Chemnitz) Bibliography
1 F. Kolb, B. Kupke, Lykien, 1989
2 E. Kosmetatou, The Hero Solymos on the Coina…
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Somatophylakes
(95 words)
[German version] (σωματοφύλακες/
sōmatophýlakes; from
sôma = 'body' and
phyláttein = 'keep guard'; sing.
sōmatophýlax) were among the Greeks the bodyguards of high-ranking personages - sometimes nobles themselves (e.g. Diod. Sic. 14,43,3; cf. Hdt. 7,205; 8,124; Xen. Hell. 6,4,14). Two circles of attendants and guards surrounded Alexander [4] the Great, the 'companions' (Hetairoi) and the somatophylakes, some of whom could also be entrusted with assignments far away from the king [1. 1,32 ff.]. In this way, somatophylax (and ἀρχισωματοφύλαξ/
archisōmatophýlax, 'arch-bodyg…
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Somnium Neronis
(142 words)
[German version] A Latin text, appended in the 6th cent. to the so-called Gospel of Nicodemus (
Acta Pilati, see New Testament Apocrypha), whose narrative sections can be traced by way of Rufinus [6] and Eusebius [7] to Iosephus [4] Flavius. It is about Jesus appearing in a dream to the emperor Nero and announcing to him Vespasian's revenge on the Jews (ch. 1), the omens of the destruction of Jerusalem (ch. 2), the destruction itself and the killing of the Jews (ch. 3). The remainder (ch. 4-12) consists of a cent…
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Somnus
(509 words)
[German version] (also
Sopor, Greek ῞Υπνος/
Hýpnos). As a god personifying sleep, Hypnos (= H.) is already mentioned in the Iliad, where Hera visits him on Lemnos and asks him to lull Zeus to sleep (Hom. Il. 14,230-360). In return she promises him Pasithea [2], one of the Graces (cf. Catull. 63,42 f.). Once he had done this, so that Hera could inflict harm on Heracles after the first destruction of Troy, H. had to flee from Zeus's anger to Nyx (Night). He then hides from Zeus in the form of a night b…
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Somtutefnakht
(58 words)
[German version] (Egyptian
Zm-twy-ty.f-nḫtt). Head of the Egyptian city of Heracleopolis Magna
c. 660-630 BC, naval commander and supervisor of Upper Egypt, related to the royal house, an important ally of Psammetichus [1] I when the latter extended his power to Middle and Upper Egypt. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (Berlin) Bibliography G. Vittmann, Der demotische Papyrus Rylands 9, 1998, 708-713.
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Sondergötter
(389 words)
[German version] A modern term describing deities, primarily in Roman religion, whose role was limited to one particular activity only and whose name described that role (e.g. Obarator; Stata Mater). The term has its origin in [1. 276-301]: 'Sondergötter' there designates deities in the second of three phases of a supposed religious evolution. The first phase were the 'Augenblicksgötter' (anonymous deities connected with only one activity); from the sondergötter evolved the pantheon of personalised deities. The modern concept of sondergötter synthesises the Romans' co…
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Song of Sicilus (Seikilos)
(140 words)
[German version] The only surviving ancient Greek song with musical notation whose origin is neither liturgical nor dramatic. It is inscribed on a grave stele from the 1st century AD, found in Tralles (Asia minor) in 1883; now in Copenhagen, NM (inv. 14897). The song is preceded by a votive inscription and followed by a now mostly destroyed explanation, both in the name of Sicilus (Σείκιλος/
Seíkilos), the donor of the stele. The text of the song, consisting of four iambic dimeters, exhorts: “As long as you live, shine!” The melody raises problems: the spec…
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Songs
(1,465 words)
[German version] I. Ancient Near East Many song genres are attested in Mesopotamia (beginning in approx. 2600 BC), in Egypt (from the 24th/23th cents. BC onwards), among the Hittites (14th/13th cent.), in Ugarit (14th/13th cents.) and in the OT (see below). There is no uniform genre classification, since hybrid forms are common. The ancient terminology is only of limited help. The umbrella term ‘cultic poetry’ refers to the literary, lyric form of song. The term ‘song’ is related to the type of performance,
i.e. singing with or without instrumental accompaniment. Texts from M…
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Sontius
(151 words)
[German version] (also: Isontius, Aesontius). River in Venetia (Tab. Peut. 4,5; Cassiod. Var. 1,18,1; 1,29; with no mention of the name: Str. 5,1,8; Hdt. 8,4,2). The source is in the Alpes Carnicae, it is joined from the left by the Frigidus (modern Vipacco) and flows into the Adriatic Sea between Aquileia [1] and Tergeste, modern Isonzo. During the yearly snow-melt, it swells strongly and is difficult to cross. It was crossed by the Via Gemina (Aquileia - Emona) near Pons Sontii (modern Mainizza)…
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