Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

chief taster, a high official of the Ottoman court. Already under the Sald̲j̲ūḳids and other Anatolian dynasties the čas̲h̲nagīr , amīr čas̲h̲nagīr or amīr-i d̲h̲awwāḳ appears among the most important officers of the Sultan. Ibn Bībī ( Al-Awāmir al-ʿAlāʾiyya , edd. Necati Lugal and Adnan Sadık Erzi, Ankara 1957, 164) mentions the čas̲h̲nagīr together with the mīr āk̲h̲ūr and the amīr mad̲j̲lis . In the Ḳānūnnāme of Meḥemmed II ( TOEM Supplement 1330 A.H. 11-12) the čas̲h̲nagīr-bas̲h̲i̊ appears as one of the ag̲h̲as of the stirrup, in the group headed by the ag̲h̲a …

[see ḳas̲h̲tāla ]

[see ḳaṣr yānī ]

(Çatalca, ancient Metra). 1. 41° 08′ N, 28° 25′ E. Thracian capital of the most rural of the 17 ḳaḍāʾ s in the wilāyet of Istanbul, 56 km. by asphalt road and 71.41 km. by rail (the station lies 2.3 km. NE of town) WNW of Istanbul. Çatalca borders the Kara su (ancient Athyras) stream at an altitude of 255 feet near the centre of a range of hills forming the backbone of the fortified "Çatalca Lines" extending from the Black Sea at Karaburun to the Marmara at Büyükçekmece. Çatalca was taken from th…

[see ṣiḳilliya ]

[see maḳūlāt ]

[see miẓalla ]

[see ḳabḳ ]

[see ʿilla ]

̲ (modern Turkish: çavuş ). A term used by the Turks to indicate (a) officials staffing the various Palace departments, (b) low-ranking military personnel. The word is met in Uygur, where it refers to a Tou-kiu ambassador; Maḥmūd Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī defines it as ‘a man who controls promotion in army ranks, and supervises the maintenance of discipline’. The word cāʾūs̲h̲ passed from the Pečenegs and Sald̲j̲ūḳids to the Turks (cf. the μέγας τξαούσιος, chief of the imperial messengers of the Lascari and Paleologi). The Persians used it as a synonym for sarhang and dūrbās̲h̲ …

, or Čawdi̊r, one of the major tribes of the Turkmen [ q.v.]. It appears already in the lists of 24 Og̲h̲uz tribes given by Maḥmūd al-Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī (i, 57; Ḏj̲uwaldar) and Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn (ed. A. Ali-zade, Moscow 1965, 80, 122: Ḏj̲āwuldur). The tribe participated in the Sald̲j̲ūḳ movement; the famous amīr Čaḳa, who founded an independent Turkmen principality on the Aegean coast at the end of the 11th century, is said to be a Čawdor. The tribal name (in the form Čawundur) was registered in Anatolia in the 16th century (see F. Sümer, Oğzlar , Ankara 1967, 315-17). The…

(or Ḏj̲āvuldur ), a Turcoman tribe, the first settlers of which came to Ḵh̲wārizm in the 16th and 17th centuries, the bulk following in the 18th century. After the wars against the Ḵh̲ānate of Ḵh̲īwa, a proportion of them was driven off to the Mangi̊s̲h̲laḳ peninsula, whence some clans emigrated to the steppes of Stavropol’. Part of the tribe submitted to Ḵh̲īwa and settled permanently in Ḵh̲wārizm. It is now a sedentary tribe with a population of ¶ some 25,000, in the Nuk̲h̲us area (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Ḳara-Ḳalpaḳistān). [See: Türkmen ]. (Ed.)

(Pahlawī: čūbikān ; other forms: čūygān (attested in Ibn Yamīn); čūlgān (cf. čūl , in Vullers, Lexicon persico-latinum ; compare Arabic sawlad̲j̲an ); Greek: τξυκάνιον, French: chicane ), stick used in polo ( bolo : Tibetan‘ ball ’, introduced into England around 1871); used in a wider sense for the game itself, ( gūy-u ) čawgān bāzī , "game of (ball and) čawgān "; also used for any stick with the end bent back, particularly those for beating drums. The čawgān is not the same as the mall ( malleum ), which is a hardwood sledge-hammer. According to Quatremère ( Mamluks , i, 123), the sawlad̲j̲ān …

Tea appears to be mentioned for the first time in an Arabic text by the author of the Ak̲h̲bār al-Ṣīn wa’l-Hind (ed. and transl. by J. Sauvaget, 18), under the form sāk̲h̲ , whereas al-Bīrūnī, Nubad̲h̲ fī Ak̲h̲bār al-Ṣīn , ed. Krenkow, in MMIA, xiii (1955), 388, calls it more correctly d̲j̲aʾ . It was introduced into Europe towards the middle of the 16th century by the Dutch East Indies company; but it is only in the middle of 17th century that its use spread, particularly in England. In Morocco the first mention of tea dates back to 1700. It was a French merchant, with business co…

, lit. “tea-house”, a term covering a range of establishments in Iran serving tea and light refreshments, and patronised mainly by the working and lower middle classes. The term ḳahwa-k̲h̲āna , “coffee-house”, is used almost synonymously, though coffee is never served. This latter name, however, tells us something of the history of this institution, for most of which we have to rely ¶ on the accounts of the European travellers. One of the earliest references occurs in Chardin’s Voyages (ii, 321), where in his description of Iṣfahān in about 1670 he s…

, modern Turkish Çaylak Tevfi̇k , Turkish writer and journalist (1843-92). A self-taught man, he was born in Istanbul and became a civil servant. He started his career in Bursa and continued in Istanbul where he published the papers ʿAṣi̊r (“Century”, later renamed Leṭāʾif-i āt̲h̲ār ) and Teraḳḳi̊ (“Progress”). In February 1876 he published his best-known paper, the humorous Čaylaḳ (“The Kite”), which became his nick-name ¶ and which ceased publication in June 1877 after 162 numbers. In 1877 he went, with a delegation, to Hungary for a month and on his return …

, name given by the Russians to a Muslim people living in the valleys of the southern tributaries of the Sunja and Terek Rivers in the Central Caucasus (native name = Nak̲h̲čio or Veynak̲h̲). The Čečens belong to the linguistic family of the Ibero-Caucasian peoples; their language forms with Ingus̲h̲, Batzbi and Kistin a special group rather close to that of the Dāg̲h̲istānī languages. The Čečens are the descendants of autochthonous Ibero-Caucasian tribes which were driven back and kept in the high mountains, between the pass of Daryal and the valley of Shar…

, the Ottoman term for the inhabitants of present-day Czechochoslovakia, mainly Bohemia and Moravia, but partly also Slovakia. The Arabs did not use this term, although the territory was known to them at least since the end of the 3rd/9th century. In the so-called “Anonymous relation” on East European and Turkish peoples, preserved by a group of early and later Muslim geographers (Ibn Rusta, Ḥudūd al-ʿālam , Gardīzī, al-Bakrī, Marwazī, ʿAwfī), the name of Svatopluk (spelled variously as Sw.n.t.b.l.k., Sw.y.t.m.l.k., etc.) ruler of the Gre…

, one of the four larger islands in Indonesia. With the exception of the north-eastern peninsula, which was one of the areas of early Christianization, and the south-western peninsula, where Islām also started its penetration in the 16th century, the island remained inaccessible to the influence of foreign religions until the second half of the 19th century. A new Christian community then came into existence in Central Celebes, inhabited by the Jo-Rad̲j̲a. It is said that this community suffered…

There has been no satisfactory explanation of the origin of the word. The following have been suggested: 1) as late as the 7th/13th (!) century, borrowed by the Nestorian Mission from the Syrian ṣělībhā ‘cross’, which was subsequently taken to mean a worshipper of the crucifix (Aḥmed Wefīk Pas̲h̲a, Lehd̲j̲e , loc. cit.); the same, thoug̲h taken over considerably earlier: Viktor, Baron Rosen in Zapiski Vost. Otd. v, 305 ff.; xi, 310 ff.; with additional source references also found in P. Melioranskiy, Zapiski Vost. Otd. xv, 1904, 036 ff.; cf. also Menges, as in the bibliography;…