Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

, “house of wisdom”, used by Arab authors to denote in a general sense the academies which, before Islamic times, spread knowledge of the Greek sciences, and in a particular sense the institute founded in Cairo in 395/1005 by the Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥākim. Since the short-lived appearance of the Bayt al-Ḥikma [ q.v.] of al-Maʾmūn, several libraries had been founded in ʿIrāḳ and Persia providing not only information on traditional learning, but also an introduction to classical sciences ( ʿulūm al-awāʾil ) (see Dār al-ʿilm ). Such establishments were very successful in Egypt under t…

, a Persian word meaning “court (language)” from dar [ q.v.]. In Arabic authors such as al-Maḳdisī (335), Yāḳūt (iii, 925), and Fihrist (19), we find the Darī language (also Fārsī Darī ) described as the ¶ spoken and written language of the (Sasanian) court. It was also the language of government and literature. After three centuries of Muslim rule in Persia it was written down in the Arabic script, and came to be called Fārsī or New Persian. The fact that New Persian literature arose and flourished in K̲h̲urāsān and Transoxiana because of politic…

Persian “the iron gate”, also called Derbend-i Āhanīn. The Arabic form is Bāb al-Ḥadīd , old Turkish Tämir qapiy. A name used for various passes in the eastern Islamic world. The most famous pass called dar-i āhanīn , is the pass in Mā warāʾ al-Nahr (Transoxiana), in the Baysuntau Mountain Range near the modern village of Derbent located on the old road between Samarḳand and Tirmid̲h̲. Perhaps the earliest mention of this “Iron Gate” is in the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsüan Tsang who went through the pass about 630 A.D. and described it briefly. The first mention of this ¶ pass under its …

(1)—(6): See Vol. II, 142-58. (7) —Indonesia. The classical Malay chronicles are not very eloquent about matters of taxes and tolls, and the collections of undang-undang, or laws, are more concerned with court rituals than with legal or fiscal questions. More materials are available for the tax regulations under the Dutch administration. Thus F. de Haan’s eminent work on Priangan . De Preanger Regentschappen onder het Nederlandsch Bestuur tot 1811, 4 vols., Batavia-The Hague 1911 ff., contains a lot of valuable information. But with regard to the Islamic kingdoms…

, one of the words most generally used to denote a tax, applied in particular to the whole category of taxes which in practice were added to the basic taxes of canonical theory. These latter ( zakāt or ʿus̲h̲r , d̲j̲izya and k̲h̲arād̲j̲ , etc.) and their yield in the “classical” period, have been covered in a general survey in an earlier article, Bayt al-māl , and a detailed description of the methodes of assessment and collection will be given under their respective titles, in particular under k̲h̲arād̲j̲; along with k̲h̲arād̲j̲ and zakāt will be included associated taxes and payments…

, “house of science”, the name given to several libraries or scientific institutes established in eastern Islam in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries. After the disappearance of al-Maʾmūn’s Bayt al-Ḥikma [ q.v.], a man of letters called ʿAlī b. Yaḥyā al-Munad̲j̲d̲j̲im (d. 275/888), friend of al-Mutawakkil and, later, al-Muʿtamid, built a library at his own expense in his residence at Karkar, near Bag̲h̲dād. It was called K̲h̲izānat al-Kutub , and was open to scholars of all countries (Yāḳūt, Irs̲h̲ād , v, 459, 467). Another writer and poet, the S̲h̲āfiʿī faḳīh …

[see tamīm ]. ¶

, ʿAbdallāh b. ʿAbd al-Raḥman b. al-Faḍl b. Bahrām b. ʿAbd al-Ṣamad Abū Muḥammad al-Samarḳandī belonged to the B. Dārim b. Mālik, a branch of Tamīm. He travelled in search of traditions and learned them from a number of authorities in al-ʿIrāḳ, Syria and Egypt. Among those who transmitted traditions on his authority were Muslim b. al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲āj and Abū ʿĪsā al-Tirmid̲h̲ī. Al-Dārimī lived a simple, pious life devoted to study, and acquired a reputation for knowledge of Ḥadīt̲h̲ , reliability, truthfulness and sound judgement. He was asked to accept office as ḳāḍī …

, Muṣṭafā , Turkish author of the 7th/14th century. Very little is known of his life. He was born blind ( ḍarīr ) in Erzurum where he studied; later he travelled in Egypt, Syria and Karaman. His works which have come down to us are: 1. Tard̲j̲umat al-Ḍarīr , an enlarged free translation, interspersed with many original verse passages, of Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-Bakrī al-Baṣrī’s (6th/13th century) version of the sīra of Ibn Isḥāk, filled with stories and legends borrowed from various sources. It consists of five volumes and was written by the order o…

, ʿthe Land of Islam’ or, more simply, in Muslim authors, dārunā , ‘our Country’ is the whole territory in which the law of Islam prevails. Its unity resides in the community of the faith, the unity of the law, and the guarantees assured to members of the umma [ q.v.]. The umma, established in consequence of the final revelation, also guarantees the faith, the persons, possessions and religious organization, albeit on a lower level, of d̲h̲immīs , the followers of the creeds of Christianity and Judaism which sprang from earlier revelations, and of the Zoroastrians ( Mad̲j̲ūs ) [cf. d̲h̲imma , d̲…

, a village and a watering place in Nad̲j̲d located at 42° 56′ N., 24° 46′ E., on the Darb al-Sulṭānī pilgrim route from al-Baṣra to Mecca ( Handbook , ii, 189). The village was a much frequented halting place for pilgrims, for the junction with the route from al-Baḥrayn was here. The district of Ḍariyya, according to Ibn Bulayhid, was a wide territory in Nad̲j̲d celebrated by the poets in pre-Islamic times for its sweet water and pasturage. The famous Ḥimā Ḍariyya is said to have been named after the village and was part of the district (Yāḳūt, iii, 457). There is some doubt as to when the ḥimā …

[see al-dirʿiyya ]

, plural of the nisba Darḳāwī, a religious brotherhood founded in north Morocco at the end of the 18th century by an Idrīsī sharīf , Mawlāy al-ʿArbī al-Darḳāwī. His name is supposed to come from the appelation of one of his ancestors who used to be called Abū Darḳa, the man with the leather shield. He was the pupil at Fās of another Idrīsī s̲h̲arīf , ʿAlī b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Djamal, an adept of the mystical doctrine of al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī [ q.v.], and after the latter’s death, he organized a brotherhood inspired by this doctrine. The seat of this group was at first the zāwiya o…

The Egyptian State Archives, consisting of the administrative records of the governments of Egypt from the start of the sixteenth century until the present time, and stored at the Citadel and in the Abdine Palace in Cairo. The extant archives of the Ottoman treasury and administration in Egypt from the time of its conquest by Selīm I in 922/1517 until it became autonomous under Muḥammad ʿAlī at the start of the nineteenth century are located at the Citadel ( al-Ḳalʿa ) archives, which were built by Muḥammad ʿAlī in 1242/1827 to store the materials rema…

[see dār al-ʿulūm (d.)].

, in modern pronunciation Derna, a town on the northern coast of Cyrenaica which is to-day the second most important in the region after Beng̲h̲āzī. It is situated in a little plain along the banks of a wādī of the same name, bounded by the plateau of the al-D̲j̲abal al-Ak̲h̲ḍar, which forms a steep slope to the south and touches the sea to the east and west, but thanks to its never-failing springs it is rich in palms (8,000) and in orange and other fruit trees. Darna owes its origin to the Greeks who founded …

, a kind of town hall in Mecca in the time of Muḥammad. The building was to the north of the Kaʿba, on the other side of the square in which the ṭawāf took place. It was the gathering place of the nobles ( malaʾ ). The Dār al-Nadwa is said to have been built by Ḳuṣayy [ q.v.], who is taken to be the ancestor of the Ḳurays̲h̲ and founder of the Kaʿba. He bequeathed it to ʿAbd al-Dār and then to ʿAbd Manāf and his son Hās̲h̲im and Hās̲h̲im’s descendants. “All matters of import to the Ḳurays̲h̲” are said to have taken place there up to the coming of Islam…

[see saray ].

, “Abode of Peace”, is in the first place a name of Paradise in the Ḳurʾān (vi, 127; x, 26), because, says Bayḍāwī, it is a place of security ( salāma ) from transitoriness and injury, or because God and the angels salute ( sallama ) those who enter it. Hence it was given to the city of Bag̲h̲dād by al-Manṣūr, as well as Madīnat al-Salām (cf. bag̲h̲dād , and also the geographical lexicon of Yāḳūt, ad init.). For the capital of Tanganyika see dar-es-salaam. (T.H. Weir*)

, also less correctly darsan, a Sanskrit word ( darśana , from the root dṛś “see”) meaning “showing, being visible”; hence, the ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects. This Hindū practice was adopted by the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī , i, 73) and his immediate successors. The English traveller Coryat records that Ḏj̲ahāngīr in Āgra used to present himself three times a day from a canopied window. The failure of S̲h̲āhd̲j̲ahān to appear during his illness at the end of 1067/September 1657 led to rumours of his death. The practice of dars̲h̲an was …

[see bīmāristān iii].

(also, but more rarely: Dār al-ṣanʿa ). Etymologically, this compound can be translated “industrial establishment, workshop”. In fact it is always applied to a State workshop: for example, under the Umayyads in Spain to establishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture and stock-piling of arms. But the sense most widely used is that of “establishment for the construction and equipment of warships”: dār ṣināʿa li-ins̲h̲āʾ al-sufun ; or simply dār al-ins̲h̲āʾ , which also occurs. This does not include the arsen…

, or Dārṣīnī (Persian dār čīnī “Chinese wood”) is the Chinese cinnamon ( Cinnamomum cassia ), next to the Ceylonese cinnamon ( Cinn. zeylanicum ) the most valuable spice from plants of the cinnamon species, of the family of the Lauraceae, perhaps the oldest spice altogether. The rind of the branch of the cinnamon-tree was used in China as medicine, aromatic substance and spice already in the 3rd millennium B.C., and reached the Near East and the ¶ Mediterranean countries in the 2nd millennium. It cannot be established with certainty with what original plant dārṣīnī …

‘the House of Truce’, territories not conquered by Muslim troops but by buying peace by the giving of tribute, the payment of which guarantees a truce or armistice ( hudna , ṣulḥ ). The two historic examples of such a situation, which were evidently the starting-point for the whole theory, are Nad̲j̲rān and Nubia. Muḥammad himself concluded a treaty with the Christian population of Nad̲j̲rān, guaranteeing their security and imposing on them certain obligations which were later looked on as k̲h̲arād̲j̲ [ q.v.] by some, and as d̲j̲izya [ q.v.] by others (for the whole question see Bal…

[see ik̲h̲tilāf ].

[see maṭbaʿa ].

[see Ṭirāz ].

The word is derived from the Mongol daru-, ‘to press, to seal’ and was used to denote a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy (K. H. Menges, Glossar zu den Volkskundlichen Texten aus Ost. Turkistan , ii, Wiesbaden 1955, 714 s.v. dor γ a; B. Vladimirtsov, Le régime social des Mongols , Paris 1948, 181, 209, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’or , Paris 1950,73). In 617-8/1221 there was a Mongol dārūk̲h̲ačī , or representative of the head of the empire, in Almālīg̲h̲ beside the native ruler. The duties laid upon him included the makin…

or the “House of Sciences”, (a) an establishment for higher instruction founded in 1872 by ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a Mubārak [ q.v.]. Its aim was to introduce a certain number of students of al-Azhar [ q.v.] to modern branches of learning by means ¶ of a five year course, in order to fit them for teaching in the new schools. In fact, as other centres were created in Cairo for the teaching of science, its curriculum was remodelled a number of times and the exact sciences were relegated to the background. The length of the course was reduced to four …

, the name of a coastal plain in Palestine, and later in particular the name of a famous fortress of the time of the Crusades, is to be found in the works of Arab authors with both these meanings. The Hebrew dārōm from which it is derived and to which it corresponds in the Arabic version of Deuteronomy, XXXIV, 3°, appeared in a few passages of the Old Testament for south as a cardinal point, or any country situated in the south (F. M. Abel), and it was later applied especially to the south-west of Judea, a low-lyi…

, necessity (also iḍṭirār ), in works of fiḳh has a narrow meaning when it is used to denote what may be called the technical state of necessity, and a wider sense when authors use it to describe the necessities or demands of social and economic life, which the jurists had to take into account in their elaboration of the law which was otherwise independent of these factors. I. The state of necessity, whose effects recall those of violence, does not result from threats expressed by a person, but from certain factual circumstances which may oblige an individual, f…

( Darwēs̲h̲ ) is commonly explained as derived from Persian and meaning “seeking doors”, i.e., a mendicant (Vullers, Lexicon , i, 839a, 845b; Gr. I. Ph., i/1, 260; ii, 43, 45); but the variant form daryōs̲h̲ is against this, and the real etymology appears to be unknown. Broadly through Islam it is used in the sense of a member of a religious fraternity, but in Persian and Turkish more narrowly for a mendicant religious called in Arabic a faḳīr . In Morocco and Algeria for dervishes, in the broadest sense, the word most used is Ik̲h̲wān , “brethren”, pronounced k̲h̲uān . These fraternities ( ṭuruḳ …

, Deryā-beyi , sea-lord, a title given in the Ottoman Empire to certain officers of the fleet. In the 9th/15th century the term deryā-beyi or deñiz-beyi is sometimes used of the commandant of Gallipoli [see gelibolu ], who had the rank of Sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi, and was the naval commander-inchief until the emergence of the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. In the 10th/16th century the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a became, as well as an admiral, the governor of an eyālet , which consisted of a group of ports and islands [see d̲j̲azā’ir-i baḥr-i safīd ]. This province, like others, was divide…

, local governor in Bihār under the Dihlī sultans. His original name is not known, Masnad-i ʿĀlī Daryā K̲h̲ān being his honorific title. He was the third son of Masnad-i ʿĀlī Mubārak K̲h̲ān Noḥānī, Sultan Bahlūl’s muḳṭaʿ or governor of the province of Karā and Manīkpūr. Daryā Ḵh̲ān Noḥānī attached himself to Prince Niẓām Ḵh̲ān (later Sultan Sikandar S̲h̲āh) during the reign of Sultan Bahlūl Lōdī. The first important event of his life was the battle of Ambāla, fought between Prince Niẓām K̲h̲ān and Tatār K̲h̲ān Yūsuf K̲h̲ayl, the rebel muḳṭaʿ of the Pand̲j̲āb in 890/1485. In 895/1490 …

[see urmiya ]

, the Ḳi̊pčaḳ Steppe, was the Islamic name of the territory called Comania by Christian writers: the great plains of what is now Southern Russia and Western Kazakhstan. Both names were given while This region was still dominated by the Ḳi̊pčaḳ or Comans (the Das̲h̲t-i Ḳi̊pcāḳ is mentioned in the Dīwān of Nāṣir-i K̲h̲usraw, who died between 465/1072 and 470/1077): they were retained when it passed under the control of the Golden Horde [see batu’ids ], who subjected and absorbed the Ḳi̊pčaḳ whilst adopting their speech in place of their native Mongo…

, name of four places in ʿIrāḳ, viz: 1. a town on the Diyālā N. E. of Bag̲h̲dād, 2. a. village in the district of Nahr al-Malik W. of Bag̲h̲dād, 3. a village near D̲j̲abbul, S. of Bag̲h̲dād, 4. a village in K̲h̲ūzistān (cf. Yāḳūt, ii, 575; Marāṣid , i, 402; cf. Muḳaddasī, 26). Daskara is arabicized from the Pahlavi dastakarta (Dastkarta, Dastakrta), modern Persian Dastad̲j̲ird [ q.v.]; it means a post, a village, a town or simply level ground (see Herzfeld, Geschichte der Stadt Samarra , Hamburg 1948, 44; J. Markwart, A catalogue of the provincial capitals of Eranshahr , …

, Arabicized form of the Persian Dastagard, the name of a number of towns in the Sasanian empire. See daskara .

[see Ḥamāsa ].

[see dustūr ].

, nicknamed Abu ’l-ʿAynayn , founder of the Dasūḳiyya order, also known as the Burhāniyya or Burhāmiyya, the ¶ followers being generally called Barāhima. Born most probably at the village of Marḳus in the G̲h̲arbiyya district of Lower Egypt in the year 633/1235 according to S̲h̲aʿrānī in Lawāḳiḥ (but 644/1246 according to Maḳrīzī in Kitāb al-Sulūk and 653/1255 according to Ḥasan b. ʿAlī S̲h̲āmma the commentator on his ḥizb ) he spent most of his life in the neighbouring village of Dasūḳ or Dusūḳ where he died at the age of 43 and was buried. His father (buried at Marḳus) was a famous local walī …

b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , a Sūfī of repute, b. 833/1429, d. in Damascus S̲h̲aʿbān 919/October 1513, author of collections of prayers ( wird , ḥizb). (C. Brockelmann*) Bibliography Ibn al-ʿImād, S̲h̲ad̲h̲arāt, year 919 Brockelmann, II, 153 S II, 153.

( ʿAbd al-G̲h̲affār ), a descendant of Mūsā, brother of the Ṣūfī Ibrāhīm Dasūḳī (see the preceding article) born in 1226/1811 in a poor family following the Mālikī ritual. After completing his elementary education in his native place of Dasūḳ, he attended the lectures of distinguished S̲h̲ayk̲h̲s at the Azhar Mosque, among whom was the celebrated Mālikī Muḥammad ʿIllīs̲h̲ (d. 1299/1882). After himself lecturing in the Azhar for a short time, he entered the employment of the st…

[see hud̲j̲wīrī ].

[see tamr ].

( in Ḳatabanic inscriptions), a district in South Arabia, situated between the lands of the ʿAwd̲h̲illa (see art. ʿawd̲h̲alī ), in the north-west and the ʿAwāliḳ (see art. ʿawlaḳī ), in the east. It belongs to the Western Aden Protectorate and has ca. 8000 inhabitants. The country is called by Hamdānī g̲h̲āʾiṭ , a steppe, a description still applicable to the greater portion of it. The climate is dry and the soil is fertile only in the north-east, where it produces tobacco, wheat and maize. Dat̲h̲īna is inhabited by two larg…

, etc. [see dāwūd , dāwūd b. k̲h̲alaf , etc.].

[see dāwūd ].

, action at law. According to a well-known formula the daʿwā is defined as: “the action by which a person claims his right, against another person, in the presence of a judge” ( Mad̲j̲alla , art. 1613). A case submitted to an arbitrator is, equally, a daʿwā. The plaintiff is termed muddaʿī , the defendant muddaʿā alayh and the object of the claim ¶ muddaʿā or, more popularly—though less accurately, as certain writers note,— muddaʿā bihi. We also meet, particularly in the Mālikī mad̲h̲hab , the terms ṭālib (plaintiff) and maṭlūb (defendant). The parties to the suit are called, in the dual, k̲h̲aṣ…

, pl. daʿawāt , from the root daʿā , to call, invite, has the primary meaning call or invitation. In the Ḳurʾān , XXX, 24, it is applied to the call to the dead to rise from the tomb on the day of Judgement. It also has the sense of invitation to a meal and, as a result, of a meal with guests, walīma : al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Nikāḥ , 71, 74; LA, xviii, 285. It also means an appeal to God, prayer, vow: al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Daʿawāt , beginning and 26, Wuḍūʾ , 69, Anbiyāʾ , 9 (Abraham’s prayer, cf. Ḳurʾān, II, 123), 40 (Solomon’s prayer, cf. Ḳurʾān, XXXVIII, 34; see also Ḳurʾān, II, 182; X, 89; XIIII; XV; XL, 46 (to which…