Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

, surname of the Syrian Arabic poet ʿAbd al-Salām b. Rag̲h̲bān b. ¶ ʿAbd al-Salām b. Ḥabīb b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Rag̲h̲bān b. Yazīd b. Tamīm. This latter had embraced Islam at Muʾta [ q.v.] under the auspices of Ḥabīb b. Maslama al-Fihrī [ q.v.], whose mawlā he became. The great-grandfather of the poet, Ḥabīb, who I was head of the dīwān of salaries under al-Manṣūr, gave his name to a mosque at Bag̲h̲dād, masd̲j̲id Ibn Rag̲h̲bān (al-D̲j̲āḥiẓ, Buk̲h̲alāʾ , ed. Ḥād̲j̲irī 327, trans. Pellat, index; al-Ḏj̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, 102; Le Strange, Baghdad , 95). Dīk al-Ḏj̲inn, born at…

[see māʿ ].

, or dikkat al-muballig̲h̲ . During the prayer on Fridays (or feast-days) in the mosque, a participant with a loud voice is charged with the function of muballig̲h̲ . While saying his prayer he has to repeat aloud certain invocations to the imām, for all to hear. In mosques of any importance he stands on a dikka . This is the name given a platform usually standing on columns two to three metres high, situated in the covered part of the mosque between the miḥrāb and the court. In Cairo numerous undated platforms are to be found. The oldest dated inscription, with the word d-k-t, dates back to Sulṭā…

, an ancient place in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco which owed its existence to the foundation in the last quarter of the 10th/16th century of a zāwiya [ q.v.], a “cultural” centre meant for teaching the Islamic sciences and Arab letters, and at the same time spreading the doctrine of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya [ q.v.] order, more precisely the branch known as the D̲j̲azūliyya [see al-d̲j̲azūlī , abū ʿabd allāh muḥammad ], and also sheltering the needy and travellers. In 1048/1638, the zāwiya dilāʾiyya or bakriyya (from the founder’s name, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū Bakr …

, founder of the kingdom of Mālwa [ q.v.], whose real name was Ḥasan (Firis̲h̲ta, Nawalkishore ed., ii, 234); or Ḥusayn (Firis̲h̲ta, Briggs’s tr., iv, 170; so also Yazdani, op. cit. below); or ʿAmīd S̲h̲ah Dāwūd ( Tūzuk-i Ḏj̲ahāngīrī . tr. Rogers and Beveridge, ii, 407, based on the inscriptions of the D̲j̲āmiʿ masd̲j̲id (= Lāt́ masd̲j̲id) in Dhār, cf. Zafar Hasan, Inscriptions of Dhār and Mānḍū , in EIM, 1909-10, 11-2 and Plates III and IV). He was believed to be a lineal descendant of ¶ Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām, S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn G̲h̲ūrī, and this belie…

(?-1031/1622), Ottoman Grand Vizier, was of Croat origin. He rose in the Palace service to the rank of Čās̲h̲nigīr Bas̲h̲i̊, ¶ becoming thereafter Beglerbeg of Cyprus and then, in D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1022/January 1614, Beglerbeg of Bag̲h̲dād. As Beglerbeg of Diyārbekir—an appointment bestowed on him in 1024/1615—he shared in the Erivān campaign of 1025/1616 against the Ṣafawids of Persia. His subsequent career until 1030/1621 is somewhat obscure. The Ottoman chronicles (cf. Pečewī, ii, 366; Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī K̲h̲alīfa, …

, in Turkish tongueless, the name given to the deaf mutes employed in the inside service ¶ ( enderūn ) of the Ottoman palace, and for a while also at the Sublime Porte. They were also called by the Persian term bīzabārī , with the same meaning. They were established in the palace from the time of Meḥemmed II to the end of the Sultanate. Information about their numbers varies. According to ʿAṭāʾ, three to five of them were attached to each chamber ( Kog̲h̲us̲h̲ ); Rycaut speaks of ‘about forty’. A document of the time of Muṣṭafā II (d. 1115/1703), cited by U…

, Dimas̲h̲ḳ al-S̲h̲ām or simply al-S̲h̲ām , (Lat. Damascus, Fr. Damas) is the largest city of Syria. It is situated at longitude 36° 18′ east and latitude 33° 30′ north, very much at the same latitude as Bag̲h̲dād and Fās, at an altitude of nearly 700 metres, on the edge of the desert at the foot of Diabal Ḳāsiyūn, one of the massifs of the eastern slopes of the Anti-Lebanon. To the east and the north-east the steppe extends as far as the Euphrates, while to the south it merges with Arabia. A hundred or more kilometres from the Mediterranean behind the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, a doubl…

S̲h̲ams al-Dīn abū ʿAbd allāh muḥammad b. Abī Ṭālib al-Anṣārī al-Ṣūfī , known as Ibn S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Ḥittīn, author of a cosmography and other works. He was s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ and imām at al-Rabwa, described by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa as a pleasant locality near Damascus, now the suburb of al-Ṣāliḥiyya, and d. at Ṣafad in 727/1327. Al-Dimas̲h̲ḳī’s best known work, Nuk̲h̲bat al-dahr fī ʿad̲j̲āʾib al-barr wa ’l-baḥr is a compilation dealing with geography in the widest sense, and somewhat closely resembling the ʿAd̲j̲āʾib al-mak̲h̲lūḳāt of al-Ḳazwīnī. Though the author’s standp…

, also called Dimotiḳa , a town in the former Ottoman Rumeli. Dimetoḳa lies in western Thrace, in a side valley of the Maritsa, and at times played a significant role in Ottoman history. The territory has belonged to Greece since the treaty of Neuilly (27 November 1919), again bears its pre-Ottoman name of Didymóteikhon, and lies within the administrative district (Nomos) of Ebros. It has a population of about 10,000, and is the seat of a bishop of the Greek church as well as o…

(Damietta), a town of Lower Egypt situated on the eastern arm of the Nile, near its mouth. Dimyāṭ, which was an important town before the Muslim conquest, was captured by a force under al-Miḳdād b. al-Aswad, sent by ʿAmr b. ¶ al-ʿĀṣ. As a Muslim town, it suffered repeated naval raids, at first from the Byzantines and subsequently from the Crusaders. After an attack in D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 238/June 853, al-Mutawakkil ordered the construction of a fortress at Dimyāṭ as part of a general plan to fortify the Mediterr…

Nūr al-Dīn or Aṣīl al-Dīn ; his dates are uncertain but almost certainly not before the end of the 7th/13th century; author of a ḳaṣīda in lām on the names of God (see al-asmāʾ al-Ḥusnā and d̲h̲ikr ); each verse of this ḳaṣīda is reputed to possess mysterious virtues, given in detail by the commentaries of which the text has several times been the object (the best-known is that by the Moroccan mystic, Aḥmad al-Burnusī Zarrūḳ, d. 899/1493). The ḳaṣīda Dimyāṭiyya holds a considerable place in the worship of the semiliterate, in particular in North Africa…

, al-Bannāʾ . Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-G̲h̲anī al-Dimyāṭī , known as al-Bannāʾ, Though he had some local reputation in Lower Egypt as a pillar of the Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya order of dervishes, owes his fame to his work Itḥāf fuḍalāʾ al-bas̲h̲ar on the Ḳurʾānic variants of the Fourteen Readers. He was born at Dimyāṭ where he had the usual education of a Muslim youth under local teachers, till he was able to journey to Cairo, where he studied ḳirāʾāt , ḥadīt̲h̲ and S̲h̲āfiʿī fiḳh under al-Muzāḥī and al-S̲h̲abrāmulsī, and was able to hear such …

, traditionist born in 613/1217 on the island of Tūnā between Tinnīs and Damietta; at the end of his career he was professor at the Manṣūriyya and at the Ẓāhiriyya in Cairo, where he died in 705/1306. Apart from the works listed by Brockelmann, to be supplemented by the recent study of A. Dietrich, ʿAbdalmuʾmin b. Xalaf ad-Dimyāṭī’nin bir muhācirūn listesi , in Şarkiyat Mecmuasi , iii (1959), 125-55) he has left a dictionary of authorities, often cited and used by subsequent historians and biographers, called Muʿd̲j̲am S̲h̲uyūk̲h̲ ; it only survives at the pre…

, I. Definition and general notion. It is usual to emphasize three distinct senses of dīn : (1) judgment, retribution; (2) custom, usage; (3) religion. The first refers to the Hebraeo-Aramaic root, the second to the Arabic root dāna , dayn (debt, money owing), the third to the Pehlevi dēn (revelation, religion). This third etymology has been exploited by Nöldeke and Vollers. We would agree with Gaudefroy-Demombynes ( Mahomet , 504) in not finding it convincing. In any case, the notion of “religion” in question is by no means identical in Maz…

a district in East Pakistan; population (1951) 1,354,432. In 1947 the district was partitioned, and its southern part was given to India. The name has been wrongly derived from Dinwad̲j̲ or Danud̲j̲, identified with king Danud̲j̲a Mardana Deva, whose coins are dated in Sáka 1339-40=A.D. 1417-18. This king has nothing to do with Rād̲j̲ā Ganesá, whose original estate was at Bhatoriya in this district and who played an important role in the early 9th/15th century Muslim history of Bengal. Dīnād̲j̲ is a non-Aryan term, which with the Sanskrit ending pur makes the f…

( Malik ), name of one of the Og̲h̲uz chieftains who set themselves up at K̲h̲urāsān after the dislocation of the kingdom of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid Sand̲j̲ar; unable to maintain his position there before the pressure of the K̲h̲wārizmian state, he found a way to profit from the dissensions among the Sald̲j̲ūḳids of Kirmān to lay hands on that principality (582/1186) and to hold it, in spite of hostilities on the borders of Sistān, Fārs, and the Persian Gulf, until his death in 591/1195. After his death, however, Kirmān in its turn became absorbed within the K̲h̲wārizmian empire, on account of in…

(pl. danānir ), the name of the gold unit of currency in early Islam. The word derives from Greek δηνάριον (Latin, denarius ), originally signifying a silver coin but in post-Constantinian times commonly synonymous with solidus , denarius aureus or νóμισμα χρυσοῦν The Arabs were familiar with thә word and with the Roman and Byzantine gold coin before Islam ( Ḳurʾān , ed. Flügel, iii, 68; and cf. ¶ J. Stepková in Numismatický Sbornik , iii, 1956, 65). The earliest type of Arab dīnār, undated but attributable to approximately the year 72/691-2, and struck almost certainly a…

(sometimes incorrectly written Daynawar) in the middle ages was one of the most important towns in D̲j̲ibāl (Media); it is now in ruins. The exact location is 34° 35′ Lat. N. and 47° 26′ E. Long. (Greenwich). The ruins are situated on the north-eastern edge of a fertile plain 1600 metres above sea level which is watered by the Čam-i Dīnawar. This stream, after traversing the precipitous Tang-i Dīnawar, joins the Gamas-Āb near the rock of Bisitūn; the G…

, Abū Ḥanīfa aḥmad b. Dāwūd , Arab scholar of the 3rd/9th century. The name of his grandfather, Wanand, indicates that he was of Iranian origin. In spite of the great value attached to his work by later authors very little has been handed down about his life except a short notice by Ibn al-Nadīm ( Fihrist , 78), copied by Yāḳūt with additional notices about the year of his death, which according to various sources fell in 281 or 282/894-5 or before 290/902-3; an appreciation of his work quoted from the K. Taḳrīẓ al-D̲j̲āḥiẓ by Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī and an anecdote a…

, Abū saʿīd ( Saʿd ) Naṣr b. Yaʿḳūb , is a writer chiefly remembered as author of al-Ḳādirī fi ’l-Taʿbīr (composed in 397/1006 and dedicated to al-Ḳādir Bi’llāh 381-422/991-1020), which is the oldest authentic Arabic treatise on oneirocriticism and an excellent synthesis of everything that was known on the subject at the time. Its sources were Arabic: Ibn Sīrīn [ q.v.] to whom innumerable interpretations are attributed; Greek: Artemidorus of Ephesus, whose Oneirocritica translated into Arabic by Ḥunayn b. Isḥāḳ (died 260/873; cf. Fihrist, 255, MS A 4726 in the Istanbul Universi…

, the laḳab of Abū D̲j̲aʿfar Aḥmad b. Ḥusayn, a S̲h̲īʿī traditionist of the 3rd/9th century. His father was a reliable authority who related traditions of the Imāms ʿAlī al-Riḍā, Muḥammad al-D̲j̲awād, and ʿAlī al-Hādī; originally from Kūfa, he lived for a while in Ahwāz, where Dindān was born. Dindān also related traditions on the authority of his father’s masters, but was regarded as a g̲h̲ālī , extremist, and his reliability as a relator was impugned. He wrote several books, among them Kitāb al-iḥtid̲j̲ād̲j̲ , K. al-anbiyāʾ , K. al-mat̲h̲ālib , and K. al-muk̲h̲taṣar fi ’l-daʿwāt …

, Alphonse , Etienne (1861-1929), French painter of oriental subjects and writer who assumed the name Nacir Ed Dine (Nāṣir al-Dīn) when he became a convert to Islam. He was born in Paris on 28 March 1861, and studied under several well-known painters (Galland, Bouguereau, Robert-Fleury). After a first trip to Algeria (1884), he won a scholarship which allowed him to return there in 1885, and from then onwards he led a nomadic life there for several months of each year, until he settled at Bou Saada (Bū Saʿāda) in 1907. It …

(Divine Faith), the heresy promulgated by the Indian Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar [ q.v.] in 989/1581. The heresy is related to earlier Alfī heretical movements in Indian Islam of the 10th/16th century, implying the need for the reorientation of faith at the end of the first millennium of the advent of the Prophet. Among its formative inspirations was Akbar’s reaction to the decadence and corruption of contemporary ʿulamāʾ , his eclecticism and religious tolerance, and the intellectual scepticism of his chief associate Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī. Ethically, the Dīn-i Ilāhī …

[see diyusḳuridīs ].

[see elči , muʿāhada , safīr ]. ¶

i.— Classical arabic 1) Diplomatic has reached the status of a special science in the West, and the results of such research are accessible in good manuals (like Harry Bresslau’s Handbuch der Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien , 2nd. ed. 1931). Much less work has been done on Arabic documents: the material is very scattered, and not yet sufficiently collated to permit detailed research. Yet Arabic documents have aroused interest for some considerable time: a number have been published, and the editing o…

[see somli ].

, a princely state, which acceded to Pakistan in 1947, with an area of 2,040 sq. miles and a population of 148, 648 in 1951, lies to the south of Čitrāl in 35° 50′ and 34° 22′ N. and 71° 2′ and 72° 30′ E., taking its name from the village of Dīr, seat of the ruler, lying on the bank of a stream of the same name and a tributary of the Pand̲j̲kōŕā. Politically the Dīr territory roughly comprises the country watered by the Pand̲j̲kōŕā and its affluents. The state gained prominence in the second half of the 19th century for its hostility to the cause of the mud̲j̲āhidīn , remnants of t…

, Abū ʿAmr al-G̲h̲aṭafānī al-Kūfī ( ca. 110-200/ ca. 728-815), important Muʿtazilī theologian, disciple of Wāṣil b. ʿAṭāʾ (d. 131/749). In contrast to many other early Muʿtazilīs, he was of pure Arab extraction; he belonged to the ʿAbd Allāh b. G̲h̲aṭafān in Kūfa. He founded his prestige, however, through his teaching in Baṣra where Wāṣil had lived. By profession he is said to have been a ḳāḍī . After 170/786 we find him in Bag̲h̲dād in the circle of the Barmakids, where he took part, together with His̲h̲ām b. al-Ḥakam, the Ibāḍī scholar ʿ…

b. Mirdās al-Fihrī , a poet of Mecca. Chief of the clan of Muḥārib b. Fihr in the Fid̲j̲ār [ q.v.], he fought against the Muslims at Uḥud and at the battle of the Trench, and wrote invectives against the Prophet. He was however converted after the capture of Mecca, but it is not known if he perished in the battle of Yamāma (12/633) or whether he survived and went to settle in Syria. (Ed.) Bibliography Sīra, ed. Saḳḳā, etc., Cairo 1375/1955, i, 414-5, 450, ii, 145-6, 254-5 Ṭabarī, index Muḥ. b. Ḥabīb, Muḥabbar, 170, 176, 434 Buḥturī, Ḥamāsa, index Ibn Sallām, Ṭabaḳāt, ed. S̲h̲ākir, 209-12 Ag̲h̲ānī, i…

, important road, rail, and air communication centre and chief commercial town in Eastern Ethiopia, situated 35 miles North-West of Harar [ q.v.] and thus within the cultural orbit of this major Muslim city in the Ethiopian Empire. The name is most probably derived from the Somali Dir - ḍabo ‘limit of the Dir’ (the Dir being the confederation of Somali tribes which inhabit the vast arid region between Dire Dawa and D̲j̲ibuti), but it is possible that the Amharicized form is meant to reflect a popular etymology from the Amharic dire dawa ‘hill of uncultivated land’…

(“Lion”), Fāṭimid amīr and wazīr ; his full name Abu ’l-As̲h̲bāl al-Ḍirg̲h̲ām b. ʿĀmir b. Sawwār, he received the agnomens of Fāris al-Muslimīn, S̲h̲ams al-k̲h̲ilāfa, and, when he was ¶ vizier of the last Fāṭimid al-ʿĀḍid, the title of al-Malik al-Manṣūr, the victorious king, according to a protocol issued by Riḍwān [ q.v.]. He was Arab in origin and was perhaps descended from the former kings of Ḥīra, to judge from the dynastic names of al-Lak̲h̲mī and al-Mund̲h̲irī that he bore. The first mention of him is made in 548/1153. He was among the detachment charged with relievin…

1. The name of a weight, derived from Greek δραχμή. Traditionally the dirham kayl or s̲h̲arʿī weighed from 50 to 60 average-sized, unshelled s̲h̲aʿīra or ḥabba , and was theoretically divided into 6 dānaḳ , the latter being calculated variously between 8 and 10 s̲h̲aʿīra. So numerous and contradictory are the reports on the weight of the dirham and its relationship to other Arab metrological units in different parts of the Islamic world and at different times that they cannot be summarized here, and the reader is referred to such works as Sauvaire’s Matériaux and Grohmann’s Einführung …

(or al-Darʿiyya), an oasis in Wādī Ḥanīfa [ q.v.] in Nad̲j̲d, the capital of Āl Saʿūd [ q.v.] until its overthrow in 1233/1818. The oasis lies c. 20 km. north-west of al-Riyāḍ, the present capital. The wadi flows south-east through the upper part of the oasis and then bends to the east before passing the main settlements. Beyond these settlements the high cliff of al-Ḳurayn forces the wadi to make a sharp turn to the south-west. The road from al-Riyāḍ descends the cliff by Nazlat al-Nāṣiriyya to enter the wadi o…

, a Turkish word meaning living or livelihood. In the Ottoman Empire it was used to denote an income provided by the state, directly or indirectly, for the support of persons in its service. The term is used principally of the military fiefs (see timar), but also applies to pay (see ʿulūfa ), salaries, and grants of various kinds in lieu of pay to officers of the central and provincial governments. It does not normally apply to tax-farms, the basis of which is purchase and not service. (B. Lewis) Bibliography Ḏj̲aʿfer Čelebi, Maḥrūse-i Istanbul fetḥnāmesi, TOEM suppl. 1331, 17 Koçi Bey Risale…

[see fask̲h̲ ].

[see k̲h̲andaḳ ].

, an island off the southern point of Saurashtra (Sawrās̲h̲t́rā, Sōrat̄h), India, with a good harbour clear of the dangerous tides of the Gulf of Cambay. Taken from the Čud́asāmas in 698/1298-99 by the generals of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī, probably lost a few years later, it was recovered by Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ in 750/1349. In 804/1402 Muẓaffar K̲h̲ān, governor for the last Tug̲h̲luḳs and first sultan of Gud̲j̲arāt, built mosques, appointed ḳāḍīs and installed a garrison in Diū. By 834/1431 Diū was a flourishing port furnishing ships for the Gud̲…

[see dīwān ].

[see kihāna , also d̲j̲afr , faʾl , ik̲h̲tilād̲j̲ , raml , taʿbīr ].

[see al-ḳaḍāʾ wa-’l-ḳadar ].

[see ṭalāḳ ].

(originally dew , Avestan daeva , Sanskrit dēva ), in Persian the name of the spirits of evil and of darkness, creatures of Ahriman, the personification of sins; their number is legion; among them are to be distinguished a group of seven principal demons, including Ahriman, opposed to the seven Ams̲h̲aspand (Av. aməša spənta , the “Immortal Holy Ones”). “The collective name of the daiva designates ... exclusively the inimical gods in the first place, then generally other supernatural beings who, being by nature evil, are opposed to the good and true faith .... These daiva, these dēv …

, a collection of poetry or prose [see ʿarabiyya ; persian literature ; turkish literature ; urdū literature and s̲h̲iʿr ], a register, or an office. Sources differ about linguistic roots. Some ascribe to it a Persian origin from dev , ‘mad’ or ‘devil’, to describe secretaries. Others consider it Arabic from dawwana , to collect or to register, thus meaning a collection of records or sheets. (See Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , i, 90; LA, xvii, 23-4; Ṣūlī, Adab al-kuttāb , 187; Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , 175; D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ , ¶ 16-17; cf. Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ ,…

, the title of high officials in the Central Asian k̲h̲ānates in the 16th-19th centuries. The title appears first, apparently, in the Tīmūrid period, when its bearer, a Turkic amīr of one of the tribes of the Čag̲h̲atāys, was in charge of military affairs and of the affairs of the Turkic subjects, and stood at the head of dīwān-i imārat (or dīwān-i aʿlā ) (see H.R. Roemer, Staatsschreiben der Timuridenzeit , Wiesbaden 1952, 169-71). The title had the same meaning in the state of the Aḳ Ḳoyunlu [ q.v.] (see J.E. Woods, The Aqquyunlu , Minneapolis-Chicago 1976, 11). In the Ṣafawī state in Iran, the d…

[see k̲h̲aṭṭ ].

, the name given to the Ottoman imperial council, until the mid 11th/17th century the central organ of the government of the Empire. Evidence on the dīwān under the early Sultans is scanty. According to ʿĀs̲h̲iḳpas̲h̲azāde (ch. 31; ed. N. Atsız, Osmanlı tarihlerı , Istanbul 1949, 118; German trans. R. Kreutel, Vom Hirtenzeit zur hohen Pforte , Graz 1959, 66), the practice of wearing a twisted turban ( burma dülbend ) when attending the dīwān was introduced during the reign of Ork̲h̲ān. Probably a kind of public audience is meant. The Egyptian physician S̲h̲ams al-Dīn …

, a town of central ʿIrāḳ, on the Ḥilla branch of the Euphrates, (at 44° 55′ E, 32° N.), midway between Ḥilla and Samāwa. With a population of some 12,000, almost all S̲h̲īʿī Arabs, it is the headquarters of a liwāʾ (total population, 508,000 according to the ‘preliminary figures’ of the 1957 census with the dependent ḳaḍās of Samāwa, ʿAfak, S̲h̲āmiyya, Abū Ṣuk̲h̲ayr, and Dīwāniyya itself; the tribes included in the liwāʾ are among the largest and least amenable of the middle Euphrates, and whether in Turkish times or the British occupation (notably in 1336/39, 191…

[see mad̲j̲lis al-s̲h̲ūrā ].

or difrīgī , now divrigi, a small town in modern Turkey, situated on the confines of Armenia and Cappadocia on one of the routes leading from Syria and Upper Mesopotamia to the Anatolian plateau. Through it runs a torrent which flows into the Çaltı Irmak, a tributary of the Kara Su (northern Euphrates). This chief town of a ḳaḍāʾ in the province of Sivas, situated among market gardens and orchards which make it a pleasant resort—archaeological remains alone testify to its former prosperity in the Middle Ages—is now no more than a …

, a specified amount of money or goods due in cases of homicide or other injuries to physical health unjustly committed upon the person of another. It is a substitute for the law of private vengeance. Accordingly it corresponds exactly to the compensation or wergeld of the ancient Roman and Germanic laws. Etymologically the term signifies that which is given in payment. The diya is also called, though very much more rarely, ʿaḳl . In a restricted sense—the sense which is most usual in law— diya means the compensation which is payable in cases of homicide, the compensation payabl…

[see Ḍayf , mihmān , musāfir ].

[see gökalp, ziya ].

, an important river of east-central ʿIrāḳ. Its name, of unknown origin and meaning, is ancient, appearing in antiquity as Σίλλα or Δέλας or Dialas; its upper waters are known as the Sirwān or (originally and more correctly) S̲h̲irwān, as known to Yāḳūt, and this name is in common use for most of its length. It forms a left-bank tributary of the Did̲j̲la (Tigris), navigable only by small craft, and with a discharge formidable in the flood season (March-May), slight in the later summer and autumn. The river rises in western Persia, where the many hill-streams (often dry in the sum…

[see ziya ].

, properly “abode of (the tribe of) Bakr”, the designation of the northern province of the D̲j̲azīra. It covers the region on the left and right banks of the Tigris from its source to the region where it changes from its west-east course to flow in a south-easterly direction. It is, therefore, the upper basin of the Tigris, from the region of Siʿirt and Tell Fāfān to that of Arḳanīn to the north-west of Āmid and Ḥiṣn al-Ḥamma (Čermük) to the west of Āmid. Yāḳūt points out that Diyār Bakr does not extend beyond the plain. Diyār Bakr is so called because it became, during the 1st/7th century…

, Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan , 10th/16th century author of a once popular history of Muḥammad, entitled Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-k̲h̲amīs fī aḥwāl nafs nafīs and preserved in numerous MSS and printed twice (Cairo 1283, 1302). The work is furnished in addition with a brief sketch of subsequent Muslim history. The brief enumeration of Ottoman rulers at the end stops in some MSS with Süleymān Ḳānūnī but usually ends with Murād III (982/1574). The author is also credited with a detailed description of the sa…

, a name formed in the same way as Diyār Bakr [ q.v.], is the province of the Ḏj̲azīra whose territory is watered by the Euphrates and its tributary the Balīk̲h̲ as well as by the lower reaches of the K̲h̲ābūr. It extends on both banks of the Euphrates from Sumaysāṭ (Samosata) in the north to ʿAnā (ʿĀnāt) in the south. The principal town of the Diyār Muḍar was al-Raḳḳa on the left bank of the Euphrates; other major towns were Ḥarrān on the Balīk̲h̲, Edessa (al-Ruhā, Urfa), capital of Osrhoene, and Sarūd̲j̲ …

, a name formed in the same way as Diyār Bakr [ q.v.], is the most eastern and the largest province of the D̲j̲azīra. It includes three regions: that of the K̲h̲ābūr and its tributary the Hirmās (D̲j̲ag̲h̲d̲j̲ag̲h̲) and their sources, i.e., the slopes of the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn; that which is contained between the Hirmās and the Tigris, the former Bēt̲h̲ ʿArabāyē with the D̲j̲abal Sind̲j̲ār; and that on both banks of the Tigris between Tell Fāfān and Takrīt, which marks the boundary with ʿIrāḳ. The lower reaches of the two Zābs are also include…

, is the most correct transcription of the Greek Διοσχορίδης; other forms, such as Diyāsḳūridūs, allow a certain Syriac influence to be admitted. In Islam the name always refers to Pedanius Dioscorides (Ist. century B.C.), born at Anazarbe in Cilicia, whose name when fully arabicized is Diyusḳuridīs al-ʿAyn Zarbī. What the Muslims in the Middle Ages knew of him and his work can be found summarized in the Ṭabaḳāt al-aṭibbāʾ wa ’l-ḥukamāʾ by Ibn D̲j̲uld̲j̲ul, ed. Fuʾad Sayyid, Cairo 1955, 21). After Galen (D̲j̲ālīnūs [ q.v.]) (377/987), he is the doctor most frequently quoted by M…

, the capital of the district ( s̲h̲ahristān ) of the same name in the Vlth ustān (K̲h̲ūzistān) of Persia, is situated in 32° 23′ N. Lat. and 48° 24′ E. Long. (Greenwich), on the left bank of the Āb-i Diz or Dizfūl-rūd. This river, which rises in the neighbourhood of Burūd̲j̲ird, flows into the Kārūn [ q.v.] at Band-i Ḳīr (ʿAskar Mukram, [ q.v.]). The town, which stands 200 metres above sea level, is built on a conglomerate formation; many of the inhabitants have made cellars ( sardābs ) under their houses in this formation, into which they retire during the he…

(1) A group of tribes in the Republic of the Sudan. The principal tribes of this group, mainly sedentary in their way of life, inhabit the banks of the main Nile from the Dongola [ q.v.] region southwards to the Fifth (Sabalūka) Cataract. Other tribes and clans in Kurdufān (Kordofan) and elsewhere attach themselves to this group. The link among the tribes of the D̲j̲aʿaliyyūn is traditionally expressed in genealogical form: their eponymous founder (rather than ancestor) is said to have been a certain Ibrāhīm known as D̲j̲aʿal ( i.e., “he made”, because he made himself a following fr…

[see bennāk ].

(variants: Ibn Rusta: N. d̲j̲āba Yaʿḳūbī: N.h.nāya , Kanbāya al-Idrīsī: D̲j̲āfa : ibid, MS. Cairo: Ḥāba again, ʿĀba , G̲h̲āba , ʿĀna , etc. occurring in the same list of kings separately in Ibn K̲h̲urradād̲h̲bih and al-Idrīsī are perhaps a dittography of D̲j̲āba ) represents the name of the former hill-state of Chamba (old name Čampā ). The ancient capital of the state was Brahmapura (or Vayrāt́apat́t́ana). Hiuen Tsang describes the kingdom as 667 miles in circuit, and it must have included the whole of the hilly country between the Alaknanda and Karnālī rivers (Law, Historical geography).…

, Mountain, see under the name of the Mountain.

[see al-d̲j̲ibal ].

, D̲j̲eblé, Lat. Gabala, Fr. Gibel, Zibel (not to be confused with Giblet-Ḏj̲oubayl) is a small port on the Syrian coast, situated 30 km. to the south of al-Lād̲h̲iḳiya, facing the island of Ruwad; it is one of the termini of the main road from K̲h̲urāsān, through the valley of the ʿAya al-S̲h̲arḳī in contact with D̲j̲abal Bahirā and G̲h̲āb, where there are roads towards Apamée and Aleppo. This town was an important commercial centre from the time of the Phoenicians, a Dorian colony in the 5th century B.C. and then a prosperous Roman town, surrounded by a coasta…

an isolated mountain (known locally as a ḥaḍba ) located in Nad̲j̲d at about 24° 48′ N, 43° 54′ E, some 60 km. north-west of al-Dawādimī, 25 km. south and east of Nafī, and 15 km. west of Wādī al-Ris̲h̲āʾ. The mountain, which consists of reddish stone, rises abruptly from the surrounding gravel plains. About seven km. in length and three km. wide, D̲j̲abala runs from south-west to northeast with three main wādīs descending from its slopes…

, the last of the G̲h̲assānid dynasts whose personality dominates the scene in the story of Arab-Byzantine relations during the Muslim Conquests and may evidence the resuscitation of the G̲h̲assānid Phylarchate after its destruction during the Persian invasion in A.D. 614. As the ally of Byzantium, D̲j̲abala fought against Muslim arms but lost twice, first at Dūmat al-D̲j̲andal and later at Yarmūk, after which battle he made his exit from military annals. But tradition has remembered him in beautiful anecdotes whether as a Muslim who c…

, Ghassānid chieftain [see G̲h̲assān ] of the pre-Islamic period, who made his début in G̲h̲assānid - Byzantine relations ca. 500 A.D., when he mounted an offensive against Palestina Tertia but was beaten by Romanus, the dux of that province. Shortly afterwards in 502, Byzantium concluded a treaty with the G̲h̲assānids and recognised them as its new allies ( foederati ). Throughout the remaining part of the reign of the emperor Anastasius (491-518), the sources are silent on D̲j̲abala, who was probably not yet the G̲h̲assānid king b…

[see ag̲h̲ridāg̲h̲ and d̲j̲udī ]

[see yarpūt].

, the name of a volcanic mountain in Syria situated ca. 105 km. southeast of Damascus. Around its west and south sides runs a small valley opening to the southeast into a large volcanic crater. In years with normal rainfall, this crater is filled with water for about eight months. A reservoir near its centre makes D̲j̲abal Says one of the few secure waterplaces in the region, where sometimes more than a hundred nomad families camp in autumn. At the mouth of the valley on the southeast-slope of D̲j̲abal Sa…

, Gibraltar , the promontory of calcareous rock, a British possession, south-west of the Spanish province of Cádiz, almost at the southern extremity of Spain (length 4.6 km., breadth reaching 1.2 km.; area, 4.9 sq. km.; highest point 425 m.); the town extends the length of the western slope, which is fairly gradual, and numbers 28,000 inhabitants (British, Spanish, Jews and Moroccans) (including the garrison); it is as it were the key to the Mediterranean, and is fortified an…

, a ruined fortress situated on the left bank of the middle ¶ Euphrates, almost opposite Ṣiffīn. Also called Ḳalʿat Dawsar from the name by which this locality was known in the pre-Islamic period and in the early days of Islam (Pauly-Wissowa, iv, 2234: to Dawsarōn , which explains the Arab traditions connecting this name Dawsar with the king of al-Ḥīra, al-Nuʿmān b. al-Mund̲h̲ir), it was described by ancient Arabic authors as a stopping-place on the route leading from al-Raḳḳa to Bālis (Ibn K̲h̲urradād̲h̲bih. 74; al-Ṭa…

, the name of the Muslims of Ethiopia. Originally the name of a region (D̲j̲abara or D̲j̲abart) in the territories of Zaylaʿ and Ifāt (cf. al-Maḳrīzī, al-Ilmām , Cairo 1895, 6 ff.), later applied to all the Muslim principalities of southern Ethiopia and, ultimately, to all Muslims living in Ethiopia. The term D̲j̲abart is sometimes also used by the Christian population of Ethiopia with reference to the Muslims of the Arabian peninsula and thus becomes identical with the term Muslim in general. In mod…

, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Ḥasan , the historian, b. 1167/1753, d. 1825 or early 1826, was a descendant of a Ḥanafī family from al-D̲j̲abart [ q.v.]. According to al-D̲j̲abartī the people of that region were very strict in their religion and were inclined to asceticism. Many of them went on foot to the Ḥid̲j̲āz, either as pilgrims or as mud̲j̲āwirūn . They had three riwāḳs , of their own: one in the mosque of Medina, one in the mosque at Mecca, and one in the mosque of al-Azhar at Cairo. The forefather of the Egyptian branch of the family of al…

[see ʿālam ].

[see nud̲j̲ūm ].

, the ancient Gabbula, a place eastsouth-east of Ḥalab, watered by the Nahr al-D̲h̲ahab. The salt-mines there lent D̲j̲abbūl a certain economic importance in the middle ages as they still do, to which it probably also owed its position as an administrative centre in the political division of the Mamlūk kingdom. (R. Hartmann) Bibliography M. Streck, Keilinschriftl. Beiträge zur Geogr. Vorderasiens, 20 Schiffer, Die Aramäer, 131 ff. Yāḳūt, ii, 29 Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ḍawʾ al-ṣubḥ, Cairo 1324, 295 von Kremer, Beiträge z. Geogr. des nördl. Syrien, 18 Le Strange, Palestine, 460 Ritter, Erdkunde…

a town in Central Babylonia, on the east bank of the Tigris, a few hours’ journey above Kūt al-ʿAmāra, and five parasangs (about twenty miles) south-east of Nuʿmāniya (the modern Tell Naʿmān). It is described as a flourishing place by the older Arab geographers; but, by Yāḳūt’s time (beginning of the 7th/13th century) it had considerably declined. In course of time—we have no details of its decay—it fell utterly into ruins. This town must date from a very remote period; for the name of the Gambū…

b. ʿAmr b. Ḥarām b. Kaʿb b. G̲h̲anm b. Salima , Abū ʿAbd Allāh (or Abu ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, or Abū Muḥammad) al-Salamī al-K̲h̲azrad̲j̲ī al-Anṣārī , Companion of the Prophet. His father, ʿAbd Allāh, was one of the seventy men of Aws and Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ who gave the Prophet the oath of allegiance at the ʿAḳaba Meeting [see al-ʿaḳaba ] and committed themselves to defend him. His father is also recorded in the list of the twelve nuḳabāʾ , the chosen group from among the seventy; D̲j̲ābir himself had attended the Meeting as a very young boy, and is therefore cou…

, abū muḥammad , the astronomer Geber of the middle ages; he was often confused with the alchemist Geber, whose full name was Abū ʿAbd Allāh D̲j̲ābir b. Ḥayyān al-Ṣūfī. He belonged to Seville; the period in which he flourished cannot certainly be determined, but from the fact that his son was personally acquainted with Maimonides ¶ (d. 1204), it may be concluded that he died towards the middle of the 12th century. He wrote an astronomical work which still survives under two different titles; in the Escurial Ms. it is called Kitāb al-Hayʾa (the Book of Astronomy), in the Berlin copy it is entitled I…

b. ʿAbd allāh al-Kūfī al-Ṣūfī , one of the principal representatives of earlier Arabic alchemy. The genealogy quoted above is taken from the Fihrist, where on p. 354 the oldest biography of D̲j̲ābir is preserved. His kunya given there is not Abū Mūsā, as usual, but Abū ʿAbd Allāh, although Ibn al-Nadīm himself states that al-Rāzī (d. 313/925 or 323/935) used to quote: “Our master Abū Mūsā D̲j̲ābir b. Ḥayyān says . . .”. The biography shows not only complete uncertainty regarding facts, but also legendary ele…

, Abu ’l-s̲h̲aʿthāʾ al-azdī al-ʿumānī al-yaḥmidī al-d̲j̲awfī (al-D̲j̲awf in Baṣra) al-baṣrī , a famous traditionist, ḥāfiẓ and jurist, of the Ibāḍī sect. He was born in 21/642 in Nazwā (in ʿUmān), and, according to tradition, became head of the Ibāḍī community of Baṣra upon the death of ʿAbd Allāh b. Ibāḍ [ q.v.]. He carried on the latter’s policy of maintaining friendly relations with the Umayyads, and kept on good terms with the ruthless persecutor of the Azāriḳa, al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, through whom he even succeeded in obtaining regular payments …

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh or Abū Muḥammad b. Yazīd b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ , Kufan S̲h̲īʿī traditionist of Arab descent. His chief teacher seems to have been al-S̲h̲aʿbī [ q.v.] (d. 100/718-19). Among other well-known traditionists, from whom he related, were ʿIkrima, ʿAṭāʾ b. Abī Rabāḥ and Ṭāwūs. Initially, he held the moderate S̲h̲īʿī views widespread among the Kūfan traditionists. Later he joined the more radical S̲h̲īʿī circles looking to Muḥammad al-Bāḳir (d. ca. 117/735) and his son D̲j̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ for religious guidance. According to some Sunnī heresiologists, he became th…

[see supplement ].

, the principal residence of the amīrs of G̲h̲assān, and for that reason known as “D̲j̲ābiya of kings”, situated in D̲j̲awlān [ q.v.], about 80 km. south of Damascus, not far from the site of the modern Nawā. It extended over several hills, hence perhaps the poetic form of plural D̲j̲awābī, with an allusion to the etymological sense of “reservoir”, the symbol of generosity (cf. Ag̲h̲ānī , xviii, 72). It was the perfect type of ancient bedouin ḥirt̲h̲ā/ḥīra , a huge encampment where nomads settled down, a jumble of tents and buildings; there is even a…

[see d̲j̲abriyya ].

(A.), compulsion in marriage exercised upon one or other of the prospective partners, ¶ under conditions which vary according to the judicial schools. The right of d̲j̲abr is foreseen neither by the Ḳurʾān nor by the …

…

, Lebanese writer, artist and poet, born on 6 January ( al-Samīr , iii/2, 52, Young 7, 142) or 6 December (Nuʿayma, 15) 1883, at Bs̲h̲arri. The details which have been related about his childhood are often romanticized or imaginary (Nuʿayma, 14-96; Young 7, 16-18 and passim …

was a high official of the Fāṭimid Caliphs al-Muʿizz and al-ʿAzīz. On one occasion he was al-ʿAzīz’s vicegerent over Egypt; in 373/984 he replaced Ibn Killīs as vizier for a few weeks, without great success. (M.G.S. Hodgson) …

, a dynasty based in al-Aḥsāʾ [ q.v.] in eastern Arabia in the 9th-10th/15th-16th centuries. The Banū D̲j̲abr descended from ʿĀmir b. Rabīʿa b. ʿUḳayl. The founder of the dynasty was Sayf b. Zāmil b. D̲j̲…

[see saʿd allāh d̲j̲abrī].

or Mud̲j̲bira , the name given by opponents to those whom they alleged to hold the doctrine of d̲j̲abr , “compulsion”, viz. that man does not really act but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects. The Muʿtazila applied it, usually in the form Mud̲j̲bira, to Traditionists, As̲h̲ʿarite theologians and others who denied their doctrine of ḳadar or “free will” (al-K̲h̲ayyāṭ, K. al-intiṣār , 18, 24, 26 f., 49 f., 67, 69, 135 f.; Ibn Ḳutayba, K. taʾwīl muk̲h̲talif al-ḥadīt̲h̲ , 96; Ibn al-Murtaḍā, K. al-munya (ed. Arnold), 45, 71 — of Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn al…

, originally two methods of transforming equations, later the name given to the theory of equations (algebra). The oldest Arabic work on algebra, composed ca. 850 A.D. by Muḥ. b. Mūsā al-K̲h̲wārizmī [ q.v.], consistently uses these methods for reducing certain problems to canonical forms; al-K̲h̲wārizmī’s work was edited with English translation by F. Rosen, London 1831. A revision of Rosen’s text is badly needed, cf. S. Gandz, The Mishnat ha Middot , in Quellen u. Stud. z. Gesch. d. Math. , Abt. A: Quellen, 2, 1932, 61 ff.; the translation is arbitrary and often wrong, not the…

, a South Arabian tribe. In early Islamic times D̲j̲aʿda had lands in the southernmost part of the Yemen highlands, the Sarw Ḥimyar, between the present-day towns of al-Ḍāliʿ and Ḳaʿṭaba in the north and the Wādī Abyan in the south. The road from Aden to Ṣanʿāʾ passed through the territory, and their neighbours were the Banū Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲ and Banū Yāfiʿ. These South Arabian D̲j̲aʿda are described by Hamdānī as a clan of ʿAyn al-Kabr, and are to be distinguished from the North Arabian tribe of D̲j…

[see ʿāmir b. ṣaʿṣaʿa ].