Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

(A.), compulsion in marriage exercised upon one or other of the prospective partners, ¶ under conditions which vary according to the judicial schools. The right of d̲j̲abr is foreseen neither by the Ḳurʾān nor by the Sunna , and a ḥadīt̲h̲ (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Niḳāh , bāb 42) actually declares that neither the father nor any other person may give in marriage without her consent a virgin or a woman who has already been under the authority of a husband; the Prophet himself consulted his daughter Fāṭima before giving her in m…

, or D̲j̲ibrīl , Hebrew Gabrīʾēl , “Man of God”, is mentioned for the first time in the Old Testament, Dan. viii, 15 ff.; ix, 21 as flying to Daniel in the shape of a Man, sent by God in order to explain the vision of Daniel about the future. In post-biblical Judaism Gabriel plays an outstanding part among thousands of angels representing nations and individuals and natural phenomena. He belongs to the archangels and is governor of Paradise and of the serpents and the cherubs (Enoch, xx, 7). He is one of “The angels of the face”, standing at the ¶ left side of the Lord, and he dominates all forces ( ibid.,…

, Lebanese writer, artist and poet, born on 6 January ( al-Samīr , iii/2, 52, Young 7, 142) or 6 December (Nuʿayma, 15) 1883, at Bs̲h̲arri. The details which have been related about his childhood are often romanticized or imaginary (Nuʿayma, 14-96; Young 7, 16-18 and passim ). Biographers are agreed upon 1895 as the date of his emigration to the U.S.A. with his mother Kāmila Raḥma (d. 28 June 1903), his two sisters Maryāna and Sulṭāna (d. 4 April 1902) and his maternal half-brother Butrus (d. 12 March 1903). The family …

was a high official of the Fāṭimid Caliphs al-Muʿizz and al-ʿAzīz. On one occasion he was al-ʿAzīz’s vicegerent over Egypt; in 373/984 he replaced Ibn Killīs as vizier for a few weeks, without great success. (M.G.S. Hodgson) Bibliography Ibn al-Ṣayrafī, al-Is̲h̲āra ilā man nāla ’l-wizāra, in BIFAO, Cairo 1925, 90 Walter J. Fischel, Jews in the economic and political life of medieval Islam, London 1937, 58 (there spelled K̲h̲abir).

, a dynasty based in al-Aḥsāʾ [ q.v.] in eastern Arabia in the 9th-10th/15th-16th centuries. The Banū D̲j̲abr descended from ʿĀmir b. Rabīʿa b. ʿUḳayl. The founder of the dynasty was Sayf b. Zāmil b. D̲j̲abr, who supplanted the D̲j̲arwānids of ʿUḳayl [see al-ḳaṭīf ]. Sayf’s brother and successor Ad̲j̲wad was born in the desert in the region of al-Aḥsāʾ and al-Ḳaṭīf in Ramaḍān 821/October 1418. Ad̲j̲wad in his fifties was strong enough to become involved in ¶ the politics of Hormuz on the other side of the Gulf. He told the Medinan historian al-Samhūdī how he had visited …

[see saʿd allāh d̲j̲abrī].

or Mud̲j̲bira , the name given by opponents to those whom they alleged to hold the doctrine of d̲j̲abr , “compulsion”, viz. that man does not really act but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects. The Muʿtazila applied it, usually in the form Mud̲j̲bira, to Traditionists, As̲h̲ʿarite theologians and others who denied their doctrine of ḳadar or “free will” (al-K̲h̲ayyāṭ, K. al-intiṣār , 18, 24, 26 f., 49 f., 67, 69, 135 f.; Ibn Ḳutayba, K. taʾwīl muk̲h̲talif al-ḥadīt̲h̲ , 96; Ibn al-Murtaḍā, K. al-munya (ed. Arnold), 45, 71 — of Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn al…

, originally two methods of transforming equations, later the name given to the theory of equations (algebra). The oldest Arabic work on algebra, composed ca. 850 A.D. by Muḥ. b. Mūsā al-K̲h̲wārizmī [ q.v.], consistently uses these methods for reducing certain problems to canonical forms; al-K̲h̲wārizmī’s work was edited with English translation by F. Rosen, London 1831. A revision of Rosen’s text is badly needed, cf. S. Gandz, The Mishnat ha Middot , in Quellen u. Stud. z. Gesch. d. Math. , Abt. A: Quellen, 2, 1932, 61 ff.; the translation is arbitrary and often wrong, not the…

, a South Arabian tribe. In early Islamic times D̲j̲aʿda had lands in the southernmost part of the Yemen highlands, the Sarw Ḥimyar, between the present-day towns of al-Ḍāliʿ and Ḳaʿṭaba in the north and the Wādī Abyan in the south. The road from Aden to Ṣanʿāʾ passed through the territory, and their neighbours were the Banū Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲ and Banū Yāfiʿ. These South Arabian D̲j̲aʿda are described by Hamdānī as a clan of ʿAyn al-Kabr, and are to be distinguished from the North Arabian tribe of D̲j…

[see ʿāmir b. ṣaʿṣaʿa ].

[see ibn dirham ].

( i.e., the leper), an important figure in the history of the Arabs before Islam, whose floruit may be assigned to the third centry A.D. Tradition makes him an Azdī and places his reign during the pre-Lak̲h̲mid period in ʿIrāḳ. From a mass of richly informative traditions, D̲j̲ad̲h̲īma emerges as a king who played a dominant rôle in the history of the Arabs in Syria and ʿIrāḳ and in the history of their relations with Persia and Rome. His reign marked the inception of one of the pre-Islamic Eras. Tradition credits him with having been…

, an Ishmaelite tribe living at G̲h̲umaysāʾ, south-east of Mecca and not far from that city. Its genealogy is: Ḏj̲ad̲h̲īma b. ʿĀmir b. ʿAbd Manāt b. Kināna [ q.v.] etc. (Wüstenfeld, ¶ Register zu den genealogischen Tabellen , 175 ff., attributes the following facts to the D̲j̲ad̲h̲īma b. ʿAdī b. Duʾil b. Bakr b. ʿAbd Manāt, etc. (Table N), without apparent justification). There was an ancient grudge between the tribe of the D̲j̲ad̲h̲īma and that of the Ḳurays̲h̲, although there was kindred between them: before…

(Arabic ‘new’, ‘modern’; Turkish pronunciation d̲j̲edīd ), followers of the uṣūl-i d̲j̲edīd ( e), the ‘new methods’, among the Muslims of Russia. The movement arose in about 1880 among the Kazan [ q.v.] Tatars, who provided it with its first leaders; from there it spread to other Turkish peoples in Russia. The D̲j̲edīds were against ‘religious and cultural retrogression’; they pressed, above all, for modern teaching methods in the schools, for the cultural unification of all Turkish peoples living under Russian domination, but…

, Arabic and the present-day official name of the ancient Mazagan (former Arabic name: al-Burayd̲j̲a “the little fortress”), a maritime town of Morocco, situated on the Atlantic Ocean 11 km. south-west of the mouth of the wādī Umm Rabiʿ. Its population was 40,318 in 1954, of whom 1704 were French, 120 foreigners, and 3,328 Jews. Some authors have considered that Mazagan arose on the site of Ptolemy’s ʿPоυσιβίς λιμήν, Pliny’s Portus Rutubis . The texts do not, indeed, say that there had ever been a town there, but merely an anchorage frequented by ships, and this ¶ seems to have been the ca…

[see ṭasm ].

, a town in the western part of mediaeval K̲h̲urāsān in Persia, now a town and also a bak̲h̲s̲h̲ or sub-district in the s̲h̲ahrastān or district of Bud̲j̲nurd in the K̲h̲urāsān ustān . It lies at the western end of the elongated plain which stretches almost from Bisṭām in the west almost to Nīs̲h̲āpūr in the east, which is drained by the largely saline Kāl-i S̲h̲ūr stream, and which is now traversed by the Tehran-Nīs̲h̲āpūr-Mas̲h̲had railway. The mediaeval geographers, up to and including Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī (see Le Strange, The lands of the Eastern Caliphate , 392-3…

, a nisba referring to D̲j̲ād̲j̲arm [ q.v. above] in western Ḵh̲urāsān, the name of two Persian poets, father and son, who flourished in the Mongol period. ¶ 1. The elder, Badr al-Dīn b. ʿUmar, made his career under the patronage of the D̲j̲uwaynīs [ q.v.], a clan originating from the same area, which came to political power under the early Il-K̲h̲āns. He was in particular connected with the governor of Iṣfahān, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad D̲j̲uwaynī (d. 678/1279). The contemporary poet Mad̲j̲d-i Hamgar, who also belonged to the circle of this p…

(djado), the old capital of the eastern region of the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa in Tripolitania, nowadays a large village in the Fassāṭō district situated on three hills of unequal height. The population of about 2,000—towards the end of the 19th century there were 500 houses—mostly consists of Berbers of the Ibāḍī tribe of Nafūsa. The ruins of the old town are nothing but a pile of broken stones and caves with a mosque in the centre. Near the mosque was formerly the business quarter and the market ( sūḳ ), near which one can still see today the site of the Jewish quart…

( d̲j̲ado ) in Arabie, or Brao in Teda, designates at once the principal palm-grove and the bulk of a massif bounded by the 12° and 20° N. parallels and the 12° and 13° E. meridians. This massif is a short branch of the plateau of primary sandstones which, from Tassili of the Ajjers to the massif of Afafi, joins the Ahaggar to the Tibesti. Changes of level are not marked: one passes from 5-800 m. on the ! plateau to 450 m. at the foot of its western declivity; J the impression of…

pl. d̲j̲adāwil , primarily “brook, watercourse”, means further “Ṭable, plan”. Graefe suggested that in this meaning it might derive from schedula ; but perhaps one should rather think of d̲j̲-d-l “to twist”, cf. S. Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen , 224, and the similar development of the meaning of zīd̲j̲ , as stated by E. Honigmann, Die sieben Klimata , 1929, 117 ff. In this second sense the word becomes a special term in sorcery, synonymous with k̲h̲ātim here it means quadrangular or other geometrical figures, into which names a…

[see nud̲j̲ūm ].

A large and famous Kurdish tribe of southern (ʿIrāḳī) Kurdistān, and of the Sanandad̲j̲ (Senna) district of Ardalān province of Western Persia. The tribe, cattle-owning and seasonally nomadic, was centred in the D̲j̲awānrūd [ q.v.] area of the latter province in the early 11th/17th century, and is first mentioned in connexion with the operations and Turko-Persian treaty of Sultan Murād IV. About 1112/1700, following bad relations with the Ardalān authorities, the main body of the tribe (estimated at 10,000 tents or families) mov…

, cousin of the Prophet and brother of ʿAlī, whose elder he was by ten years. When his father was reduced to poverty, his uncle al-ʿAbbās took D̲j̲aʿfar into his house to solace him, while Muḥammad took care of ʿAlī. Soon being converted to Islam (D̲j̲aʿfar occupies the 24th, or 31st, or 32nd place in the list of the first Muslims), he was among those who emigrated to Abyssinia (his name heads the second list given by Ibn His̲h̲ām, 209); his wife Asmāʾ b. ʿUmays followed him. When the Ḳurays̲h̲ …

b. Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Salām b. Isḥāḳ b. Muḥammad al-Buhlūlī al-Abnāwī , Zaydī, scholar and ḳāḍī . His ancestors, including his father, were Ismāʿīlī ḳāḍīs of Ṣanʿāʾ under the Ṣulayḥids and Ḥātimids. His brother Yaḥyā (d. 562/1167) served the Ismāʿīlī Zurayʿids of ʿAdan as a panegyrist and judge. D̲j̲aʿfar converted to Zaydism at an unknown date and at first adhered to the doctrine of the Muṭarrifiyya [ q.v.]. After the arrival of the Ḵh̲urāsānian Zaydī scholar Zayd b. al-Ḥasan al-Bayhaḳī in Ṣaʿda in 541/1146, D̲j̲aʿfar studied with him. Al-Bayhaḳī represented the…

, a descendant of a Yemeni family which settled in Spain at an unknown date, subsequently moving to the district of Msīla, in the Mag̲h̲rib, at the end of the 3rd/9th century at the latest. Like his father ʿAlī, he was at first a loyal supporter of the Fāṭimid cause, as Governor of Msila; then, probably inspired by jealousy of the Zīrids [ q.v.] who were increasingly favoured by the Fāṭimid caliphs, he changed sides in 360/971 and swore obedience to the Umayyad ¶ caliph of Spain. After a few years in favour, he incurred the displeasure of the all-powerful ḥād̲j̲ib al-Manṣūr b. Abī ʿĀmir [ q.v.] who …

( ?-926/1520)—the “Zafir agà, eunuco” listed in the index to Marino Sanuto, Diarii , xxv, col. 832—was Sand̲j̲aḳ Beg of Gallipoli, i.e., Ḳapudān or High Admiral of the Ottoman naval forces. He was appointed to this office, not (as Ḳāmūs al-aʿlām and Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī assert) in 917/1511 but in 922/1516. His tenure of the office coincided with the Ottoman conquest of Syria and Egypt (922-3/1516-7) and with the extensive naval preparations that Sultan Selīm I (918-26/1512-20) urged forward during the last of his …

[see ibn al-furāt ].

Abu ’l-Faḍl D̲j̲aʿfar b. Ḥarb al-Hamad̲h̲ānī (d. 236/850), a Muʿtazilī of the Bag̲h̲dād branch, was first a disciple of Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl al-ʿAllāf at Baṣra, and then of al-Murdār at Bag̲h̲dād, whose asceticism he tried to imitate; this is what inspired him to give to the poor the large fortune which he had inherited from his father. In agreement with the Muʿtazila, he defended the doctrine that God knows through Himself from all eternity, that His knowledge is His very being, and that the object of His knowledge can exist from all eternity. He said t…

, Ismāʿīlī author and partisan of the Fāṭimids [ q.v.]. He was the son of the first Ismāʿīlī missionary in Yaman, al-Ḥasan b. Faraḥ b. Ḥaws̲h̲ab b. Zādān al-Kūfī, known as Manṣūr al-Yaman [ q.v.]. When in the year 286/899 the chief of the Ismāʿīlī propaganda, ʿUbayd Allāh, claimed the imāmate, Manṣūr al-Yaman acknowledged him; the letter by which ʿUbayd Allāh tried to prove his ʿAlid descent has been preserved in D̲j̲aʿfar’s al-Farāʾiḍ wa-ḥudūd al-dīn (see H.F. Hamdani, On the genealogy of Fatimid caliphs, Cairo 1958). When after the death of Manṣūr al-Yaman (302/914-15) his s…

al-Ḳaṣabī (also al-T̲h̲aḳafī), a prominent Muʿtazilī theologian and ascetic of the school of Bag̲h̲dād, d. 234/848-9. He was a disciple of Abū Mūsā al-Murdār, and to some slight degree also influenced by al-Naẓẓām [ q.v.] of Baṣra. Little is known of his life except some anecdotes about his abnegation of the world, and the information that he introduced the Muʿtazilī doctrine to ʿĀna [ q.v.], and held disputations with Bis̲h̲r b. G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Marīsī [ q.v.]. He is the author of numerous works on fiḳh and kalām (al-K̲h̲ayyāṭ 81; Fihrist 37) and he had numerou…

[see abū maʿs̲h̲ar ].

[see al-barāmika ].

(864/1459-921/1515), Ottoman statesman and man of letters, was born at Amasya (for the date see E. Blochet, Cat. des mss. turcs , ii, 1-2), where his father Tād̲j̲ī Beg was adviser to Prince (later Sultan) Bāyezīd. After rising in the theological career to müderris , he was appointed nis̲h̲ānd̲j̲i̊ by Bāyezīd II (in 903/1497-8, see Tâci-zâde Sa’dî Çelebi Münşeâtı , ed. N. Lugal & A. Erzi, Istanbul 1956, 85). Suspected of favouring Prince Aḥmad in the struggle for the succession, Ḏj̲aʿfar, with other of Aḥmad’s partisans, was dismis…

[see fiḳh , it̲h̲nā ʿas̲h̲àriyya ].

(“the trustworthy”), Abū ʿAbd Allāh, son of Muḥammad al-Bāḳir, was transmitter of ḥadīt̲h̲s and the last imām recognized by both Twelver and Ismāʿīlī S̲h̲īʿīs. He was born ¶ in 80/699-700 or 83/702-3 in Medina, his mother, Umm Farwa, being a great-granddaughter of Abū Bakr. He inherited al-Bāḳir’s following in 119/737 (or 114/733); hence during the crucial years of the transition from Umayyad to ʿAbbāsid power he was at the head of those S̲h̲īʿīs who accepted a nonmilitant Fāṭimī imāmate. He lived quietly in Madīna as an authority in ḥadīt̲h̲ and probably in fiḳh ;…

b. ʿAlī s̲h̲arīf al-Ḳurays̲h̲ī al-Nāgōrī , whose dates of birth and death are unknown, wrote his Ḳānūn-i Islām at the instigation of Dr. Herklots some time before 1832. He is said to have been “a man of low origin and of no account in ¶ his own country”, born at Uppuēlūru (Ellore) in Kistna District, Madras, and was employed as a muns̲h̲ī in the service of the Madras government. He was an orthodox Sunnī, yet tolerant towards the S̲h̲īʿas, who had considerable influence in south India in his time, learned yet objective in his approach…

The particular veneration which, among the S̲h̲īʿas, the members of the Prophet’s family enjoy, is at the base of the belief that the descendants of Fāṭima have inherited certain privileges inherent in Prophethood; prediction of the future and of the destinies of nations and dynasties is one of these privileges. The S̲h̲īʿī conception of prophecy, closely connected with that of the ancient gnosis (cf. Tor Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben seiner Gemeinde , Stockholm 1918, ch. vi) made the prophetic afflatus pass from Adam to Muḥamm…

[see čag̲h̲atay ].

a small oasis to the southeast of Cyrenaica, the site of the tomb of Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Sanūsī, founder of the brotherhood of the Sanūsiyya. It is the furthest east, the smallest and the least prosperous of the oases along the important traditional route which leads from the valley of the Nile and Sīwa to Fezzan and the region of Tripoli, passing through a chain of depressions where are to be found the palm-groves of D̲j̲ālo, Awd̲j̲īla, Marada, and D̲j̲ufra, which are close to the 29th parallel. The depression of D̲j̲ag̲h̲būb consists of a sinuous basin called Wādī D̲j̲ag̲h̲būb c…

(or Čag̲h̲mīnī ), Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar , a well-known Arab astronomer, a native of D̲j̲ag̲h̲mīn, a small town in ¶ K̲h̲wārizm. The dates of his birth and death are not precisely established, but it is very probable that he died in 745/1344-5 (cf. Suter, in ZDMG, liii (1899), 539). The following works of his have been preserved: (1) al-Mulak̲h̲k̲h̲aṣ fi ’ l-hayʾa (Epitome of astronomy), which was very widely known and was frequently commented upon, notably by Ḳāḍīzāda al-Rūmī, by al-Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ānī. and by many others; a German tran…

, land given or assigned by governments in India to individuals, as a pension or as a reward for immediate services. The holder ( d̲j̲āgīrdār ) was not liable for land tax on his holding (see Ḍarība ), nor necessarily for military service by virtue of his tenure. See further iḳṭāʿ .

, Muʿizz al-Dīn , Mug̲h̲al emperor regnabat 21 Ṣafar 1124/29 March 1712 to 16 Muḥarram 1125/11 February 1713. Born 10 Ramaḍān 1071/10 May 1661, eldest son of Bahādur S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], at the time of his father’s death he was governor of Multān. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he was able to participate actively in the struggle among Bahādur S̲h̲āh’s sons for the throne only through the support of the ambitious D̲h̲u ’l-fiḳār K̲h̲ān, mīr bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī and ṣūbadār of the Deccan who was anxious to exclude ʿAẓīm al-S̲h̲aʾn from the succession and to win the wizāra for himself. After three days fight…

, the fourth Mug̲h̲al emperor of India in the line of Bābur [ q.v.], the first surviving child of Akbar, others born earlier having all died in infancy, was born on 17 Rabīʿ I 977/31 August 1569 of a Rād̲j̲pūt queen, called Miryam al-Zamānī, at (Fatḥpur) Sīkrī, near Āgrā, in the hermitage of a recluse S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Salīm Čis̲h̲tī, to whose intercession the birth of a son was attributed. The young prince was named Salīm after the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ but Akbar always called him S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ū Bābā, scrupulously avoiding the …

, Gehenna (Hebrew gēhinnōm , valley of the Gehenna); the Arabic word evokes etymologically the idea of “depth” (cf. infernus ). Used very often in the Ḳurʾān as a synonym of nār (“fire”), d̲j̲ahannam must accordingly be rendered by the general idea of Hell. The same is true in traditions. Exegetists and many treatises on kalām (or taṣawwuf ) were, subsequently, to give it a particularized connotation. The description of the Muslim Hell, the problems relating to it and consequently the references to verses in the Ḳurʾān mentioning d̲j̲ahannam, are considered in the article nār: here only …

(i) [see supplement].

(ii) [See mug̲h̲als ].

ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Ḥusayn b. al-Ḥusayn , G̲h̲ūrid ruler—poet, notorious for his burning of G̲h̲azna in 546/1151. The cause of the violence between the G̲h̲ūrids and Bahrām S̲h̲āh of G̲h̲azna [ q.v.] would appear to have been an attempt by Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Muḥammad, (eldest brother of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn) to seize G̲h̲azna through an intrigue with some of its inhabitants. Bahrām S̲h̲āh had him poisoned; an attempt by another brother, Sayf al-Dīn Sūrī, to avenge his brother ended, after the temporary occupation of G̲h̲azna by the G̲h̲ūrid force…

(pl. d̲j̲ahābid̲h̲a ), a term of Persian origin, perhaps derived from a * gahbad̲h̲ in the Sāsānid administration, (the term is suggested by Herzfeld; Paikuli, gloss. N° 274) used in the sense of a financial clerk, expert in matters of coins, skilled money examiner, treasury receiver, government cashier, money changer or collector ( Tād̲j̲ al-ʿArūs , ii, 558; Dozy, Supplément , i, 226; Vullers, Lexicon Persicum , i, 544; Ibn Mammātī, 304, etc.). From the end of the 2nd/8th century on, bearers of this title in the time of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphs Manṣūr, Harūn, and Mahdī …

[see k̲h̲alwatiyya ].