Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition

, a term in Ottoman Turkish used to describe companies of brigands, led usually by idle or dissident Ottoman army officers, widely-spread throughout Anatolia from about 999/1590 but diminishing by 1030/1620. The term probably derives from an earlier (925/1519) political and religious rebellion in Amasya by a S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ D̲j̲alāl. Official Ottoman use appears in a petition ( ʿarḍ ) as early as 997/1588 (Divani Kalemi 997-8-C), where the term identifies unchecked rebels ( as̲h̲ḳiyāʾ ) engaging in brigandage. Analysis of the three-decade period of D̲j̲alālī re…

( Taʾrīk̲h̲-i D̲j̲alālī ), the name of an era and also that of a calendar used often in Persia and in Persian books and literature from the last part of the 5th/11th century onward. The era was founded by the 3rd Sald̲j̲ūḳid ruler Sulṭān Maliks̲h̲āh b. Alp Arslan (465-85/1072-92) after consultation with his astronomers. It was called D̲j̲alālī after the title of that monarch, D̲j̲alāl al-Dawla (not D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn as some later authors supposed). The era was also called sometimes Malikī . The epoch of the era ( i.e., its beginning) was Friday, 9 Ramaḍān 471/15 March 1079, when the …

[see i̇leri̇ , celâl nuri̇ ].

[see red̲j̲āʾīzāde ].

(ca. 896/ 1490-975/1567), known as ‘Ḳod̲j̲a Nis̲h̲ānd̲j̲i̊’, Ottoman civil servant and historian, was the eldest son of the ḳāḍī D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn from Tosya (for whom see S̲h̲aḳāʾiḳ , tr. Rescher, 297 = tr. Med̲j̲dī, 466). His talents having attracted the attention of Pīrī Pas̲h̲a, in 922/1516 he turned from the scholarly career to become a clerk to the dīwān-i humāyūn . He was private secretary to Pīrī Pas̲h̲a during his Grand Vizierate (924/1518-929/1523) and to his successor Ibrāhīm Pas̲h̲a; his services in helping to regulate the…

, Ottoman scholar, historian and poet, and younger brother of the famous nis̲h̲ānd̲j̲i̊, D̲j̲alālzāde Muṣṭafā Čelebi. Born in the last decade of the 9th century A.H. in Vučitrn (NW of Pris̲h̲tina) where his father, D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn, was ḳāḍī, upon completing his studies under Kamāl Pas̲h̲a-zāde and K̲h̲ayr al-Dīn Efendi, the tutor of Sulṭān Sulaymān, he entered the normal teaching career, reaching the Ṣaḥn in 943/1536-7 and the Bāyazīdiyya in Edirne in 949/1542-3. His judicial appointments include Aleppo (951/1544), Damascus (953/15…

( d̲j̲alāʾir , d̲j̲alāʾirid ). Originally the name of a Mongol tribe (see Ras̲h̲īd al-Dīn, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i G̲h̲āzānī , esp. bāb a), the term D̲j̲alāyir (and D̲j̲alāyirid) in Islamic history principally denotes one of the successor-dynasties that divided up the territories of the defunct Ilk̲h̲ānid empire. The spelling ‘D̲j̲alāyir’ is given by al-Ahrī, the contemporary, and very likely official, chronicler of the dynasty. D̲j̲alāyirid genealogies usually begin with Īlkā Nūyān (hence the dynasty’s …

[see d̲j̲awālī ].

, a family and quasi-dynasty in Mosul, where seventeen members held the position of wālī of that wilāya for various periods between 1139/1726 and 1250/1834. If legendary origins in eastern Anatolia can be ignored, the founder of the family, ʿAbd al-D̲j̲alīl, seems to have begun life as a Christian slave of the local and equally famous ʿUmarī family in the later 11th/17th Century. His son Ismaʿīl, a Muslim and well educated, attained the Pas̲h̲ali̊ḳ of Mosul by exceptional merits after a lon…

, Arabic for Galen, born in Pergamon, in Asia Minor A.D. 129, died in Rome about 199; the last great medical writer in Greek antiquity, outstanding as an anatomist and physiologist as well as as a practising physician, surgeon and pharmacologist. He also became known as an influential though minor philosopher. More than 120 books ascribed to him are included in the last complete edition of his Greek works by C. E. Kühn (Leipzig 1821-33); they represent by no means his whole output: some works have survived in Arabic, Hebrew or Latin translation only, others are unretrievably lost. Although D…

(from Arabic d̲j̲alā [ ʿan ], to emigrate), used here for the Arabic-speaking communities with special reference to North and South America. About eighty per cent of these emigrants are estimated to have come from what is today the Lebanese Republic; fifteen per cent from Syria and Palestine and the rest from al-ʿIrāḳ and al-Yaman. Egypt’s quota is negligible. Overpopulation in mountainous Lebanon, whose soil was less fertile than its women, combined with political unrest, economic pressure and a seafaring tradition, found relief in migration to other l…

, or, according to the dialect, d̲j̲allāba or d̲j̲allābiyya , an outer garment used in certain parts of the Mag̲h̲rib, which is very wide and loose with a hood and two armlets. The d̲j̲allāb is made of a quadrangular piece of cloth, which is much longer than it is broad. By sewing together the two short ends a wide cylinder is formed. Its upper opening is also sewn up except for a piece in the centre where a hole is required for the head and neck. Holes are cut on each side for the arms. When the garment i…

, a town in the Indian state of Rajasthan, some 75 miles south of D̲j̲odhpur on the left bank of the Sukrī river. Although the troops of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī had passed through D̲j̲ālor on their return from the conquest of Gud̲j̲arāt in 696/1297, it was not then occupied by them. In Ḏj̲umādā I 705/December ¶ 1305, however, that king sent ʿAyn al-Mulk, governor of Multān, on an expedition to D̲j̲ālor, Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn and Čandērī; he was opposed by an army of 150,000 Hindūs on his entry into Mālwā, and his victory over them, which brought Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn, D̲h̲ār, Mānd́ū, and Čandērī [ qq.v.] into M…

, a town in ʿIrāḳ (Babylonia) and, in the mediaeval division of this province, the capital of a district ( ṭassūd̲j̲ ) of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲-Ḳubād̲h̲ circle to the east of the Tigris, was a station on the important K̲h̲urāsān road, the main route between Babylonia and Īrān, and was at about an equal distance (7 parasangs = 28 miles) from Dastad̲j̲ird [ q.v.] in the south-west and from K̲h̲āniḳīn in the northeast. It was watered by a canal from the Diyālā (called Nahr D̲j̲alūlāʾ), which rejoined the main stream a little further down near Bād̲j̲isrā [ q.v.]. Near this town, which seems from the s…

, The Goliath of the Bible appears as D̲j̲ālūt in the Ḳurʾān (II, 248/247-252/251) (the line of al-Samawʾal where the name occurs is inauthentic), in assonance with Ṭālūt [ q.v.] and perhaps also under the influence of the Hebrew word gālūt , “exile, Diaspora”, which must have been frequently on the lips of the Jews in Arabia as elsewhere. The passage of the Ḳurʾān where he is referred to by name (his introduction in the exegesis of V, 25 seems to be sporadic and secondary) combines the biblical account of the war…

[see fīrūzkūh ].

, a village in Afg̲h̲ānistān (orchards, particularly of apricots) in the region of G̲h̲ūr [ q.v.] on the Tagao Gunbaz, tributary on the left bank of the Harī Rūd, above Čis̲h̲t; an hour’s march away, by the confluence of the tributary and the main stream, stands a cylindrical minaret of harmonious proportions, with an octagonal base which carries three superposed stages of truncated conical form, with an interior staircase (over 180 steps); the height of This minaret (about 60 m.) puts it between the Ḳuṭb mīnār of Dihlī [ q.v.] and the minaret of Buk̲h̲ārā [ q.v.]. One of the inscriptions …

, meeting, assembly. In the religious language of Islam it denotes “the whole company of believers”, d̲j̲amāʿat al-muʾminīn , and hence its most usual meaning of “Muslim community”, d̲j̲amāʿa islāmiyya . In this sense d̲j̲amāʿa is almost synonymous with umma [ q.v.]. The two terms must, however, be distinguished. The term umma is Ḳurʾānic. It means “people”, “nation”, and is used in the plural ( umam ). It acquires its religious significance particularly in the Medina period when it becomes, in the singular, “the nation of the Prophet”, “the Community, e.g., Ḳurʾān III, 110, etc.). T…

A term current in the Muslim World in the later Middle-Ages equivalent to salary. Its origin is the Persian d̲j̲āma = “garment”, whence d̲j̲āmakī , with the meaning of a man who receives a special uniform as a sign of investiture with an official post. From this came the form d̲j̲āmakiyya with the meaning of that part of the regular salary given in dress ( malbūs , libās ) or cloth ( ḳumās̲h̲ ). Ultimately it took the meaning of “salary”, exactly as the word d̲j̲irāya , which meant originally a number of loaves of bread sent daily by the Sultan to someone, t…

[see ibil ].

[see ʿilm al-d̲j̲amāl ].

, “the camel” is the name of the famous battle which took place in the month of D̲j̲umādā II 36/November-December 656 near al-Baṣra between the Caliph ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib on the one hand, and the Prophet’s widow ʿĀʾis̲h̲a [ q.v.] with the Companions of the Prophet Ṭalḥa b. ʿUbayd Allāh al-Taymī and al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ qq.v.] on the other. At that time it was these two companions who, after ʿAlī, had most authority among the Muslims. ʿĀʾis̲h̲a was completing the ʿumra in Mecca when she learned of the assassination of the Caliph ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān, and…

, al-Sayyid Muḥammad b. Ṣafdar , was one of the most outstanding figures of nineteenth century Islam. Cultured and versed in mediaeval Muslim philosophy, he devoted his life and talents to the service of the Muslim revival. He was, in the words of E. G. Browne, at the same time a philosopher, writer, orator and journalist. Towards colonial powers he was the first to take the political attitude since adopted by many movements of national liberation. He is known above all as the f…

, a Turkish philosopher and theologian, who was born and died (791/1389?) at Aḳsaray. According to tradition Ḏj̲amāl al-Dīn Meḥmed, who during his lifetime was known by the name of D̲j̲amālī, is said to have been the great-grandson of Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn Rāzī. He was appointed instructor at the madrasa of Zind̲j̲irli, at Aḳsaray, after learning by heart the Ṣaḥāḥ , al-D̲j̲awharī’s Arabic lexicographical work, an indispensable requirement of anyone seeking to obtain this appointment. Like the ancient Greek philosophers he split up his ve…

[see hanswī , d̲j̲amāl al-dīn ].

, Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Razzāḳ , Persian poet of the later Sald̲j̲ūḳ period, and father of a better-known poet Kamāl al-Dīn Ismāʿīl [ q.v.]. A goldsmith and miniature painter in his early years, he left his workshop, as his son tells us, to study, acquiring extensive theological knowledge, traces of which are to be found as characteristics in his ʿIrāḳī-styled poetry. Continuous eye troubles, a speech impediment, a large family of at least four sons, and a short tour through Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān and Māzandarān, very likely …

, 1848-1919, Ottoman S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām, was born in Istanbul (9 Ḏj̲umādā I 1264/13 April 1848), the son of the ḳāḍīʿasker Meḥmed K̲h̲ālid Ef. Educated by his father and by private tutors, he attained the rank of mudarris and entered the secretariat of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām’s department. In 1295/1880 he was appointed Secretary ( mektūbd̲j̲u ), with the rank of mūṣile-i Süleymāniyye , then became ḳāḍīʿasker of Rūmeli, and in Muḥarram 1309/August 1891 S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām. He held office until 1327/1909, retaining his post in the cabinets formed immediately …

, a complimentary title of the Persian divine and historian Amīr d̲j̲amāl [al-dīn] ʿaṭāʾ allāh b. faḍl allāh al-ḥusaynī al-das̲h̲takī al-s̲h̲īrāzī , who flourished at Harāt during the reign of Sulṭān Ḥusayn the Tīmūrid (875-911/1470-1505); the probable date of his death is 926/1520. His known works are: (1) Rawḍat al-aḥbāb fī siyar al-Nabī wa ’l-āl wa ’l-aṣḥāb , a history of Muḥammad, his family and companions, written at the request of Mīr ʿAlī S̲h̲īr and completed in 900/1494-5 (Lucknow ed. 1297/1880-2, Turkish tr. Constantinople 1268/1852); (2) Tuḥfat al-aḥibbāʾ fī manāḳib Āl …

, Ḥāmid b. Faḍl Allāh of Dihlī (d. 942/1536), poet and Ṣūfī hagiographer. He travelled extensively throughout the Dār al-Islām from Central Asia to the Mag̲h̲rib, and from Anatolia to Yemen, meeting a number of prominent Ṣūfīs including D̲j̲āmī [ q.v.], with whom he had interesting discussions in Harāt. His travels constitute a link ¶ between the Indian Ṣūfī disciplines and those of the rest of the Muslim world; while it is possible that the style of the Persian poetry of the court of Harāt travelled to India in his wake, creating the sabk-i Hindī of the 10th/16th c…

, Mawlānā ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-D̲j̲amālī , Ottoman S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām from 908/1502 to 932/1526, also called simply ʿAlī Čelebi or Zenbilli ʿAlī Efendi, was of a family of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ s and scholars of Ḳaramān who had settled in Amasya. D̲j̲amālī was born in this city (Ḥ. Ḥusām al-Dīn, Amasya taʾrīk̲h̲i , i, Istanbul 1327, 105, 321). After his studies under such famous scholars as Mollā K̲h̲usraw in Istanbul and Ḥusām-zāde Muṣliḥ al-Dīn in Bursa D̲j̲amālī was appointed a mudarris at the ʿAlī Beg Madrasa in Edirne. His cousin, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad D̲j̲amālī…

, sobriquet of Abu ’l-Faḍl D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿUmar b. K̲h̲ālid , scholar and administrator in Turkestān during the Mongol era. He was born at Almali̊g̲h̲ around 628/1230-1, his father a ḥāfiẓ of Balāsāg̲h̲ūn and his mother originating from Merw. He enjoyed the patronage of the local Turkish dynasty founded at Almali̊g̲h̲ [ q.v.] by Būzār (or Uzār), and obtained a position in the chancellery there. In 662/1264, however, he was obliged to leave Almali̊g̲h̲, and for the remainder of his life resided at Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar, though travelling widely in western Turkestān. In 681/1282 he c…

[see d̲j̲emāl pas̲h̲a ].

[see palembang ].

[see awliyā ata ].

, a popular Ḳazak̲h̲ poet, illiterate and thus representing oral poetic tradition. Born in 1846 in Semireče of a nomadic family, he took the name Djambul (Džambul) from a mountain; later, in 1938, this name was to be given in his honour to the town of Awliyā Ata [ q.v.] and to an oblast ′ of Ḳazak̲h̲istān. From an early age he was devoted to music and singing, and by them earned his living while still a youth; taking his inspiration from popular grievances, he often improvised poems which he sang, accompanying himself on the dombra ; the best known are entitled “The P…

The word d̲j̲amdār is a contraction of Pers. d̲j̲āma-dār , “clothes-keeper”, cf. Dozy, Suppl . This word is not, as stated by Sobernheim in EI 1, a “title of one of the higher ranks in the army in Hindustān …”, although d̲j̲amʿdār , popularly d̲j̲amādār , Anglo-Indian Jemadar, “leader of a number ( d̲j̲amʿ ) of men”, is applied in the Indian Army to the lowest commissioned rank, platoon commander, but may be applied also to junior officials in the police, customs, etc., or to the foreman of a group of guides, sweepers, etc. (Ed.) In Mamlūk Egypt the d̲j̲amdāriyya (sing. d̲j̲amdār), “keepers of …

—The aim of the present article is to clarify general ideas, and to show what system underlies the expression of grammatical number, as regards the Arabic plural and collective. The Arabic language distinguishes. between: 1) the singular, 2) dual, 3) plural, 4) collective. Arab grammarians have paid close attention to the first three: 1) the singular: al-wāḥid ; mufrad is applied to the “simple” noun (as opposed to murakkab , applied to the “compound” noun) by the Muf . § 4; but it has also been used for “singular”, likewise fard [ q.v.].—2) the dual: al-mut̲h̲annā , …

[see masd̲j̲id ].

, Mawlanā Nūr al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , the great Persian poet. He was born in K̲h̲ard̲j̲ird, in the district of Ḏj̲ām which is a dependency of Harāt, on 23 S̲h̲aʿbān 817/7 November 1414 and died at Harāt on 18 Muḥarram 898/9 November 1492. His family came from Das̲h̲t, a small town in the neighbourhood of Iṣfahān; his father, Niẓām al-Dīn Aḥmad b. S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad, had left that district and settled near Harāt; consequently the poet had for some time signed his works with the tak̲h̲alluṣ Das̲h̲tī before adopting the tak̲h̲alluṣ D̲j̲āmī. In the regular cour…

From the root d̲j̲amaʿa (to bring together, to unite), this Arabic term is used to denote ah ideal, a bond or an institution which unites individuals or groups, e.g., al-Ḏj̲āmiʿa al-Islāmiyya (Pan-Islamism); D̲j̲āmiʿat al-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya (League of Arab States); D̲j̲āmiʿa (University). ¶ This article is limited to the last-mentioned meaning and deals with university institutions in the Islamic countries. Although Ḏj̲āmiʿa , in this sense, includes, in popular and semi-official usage, traditional institutions of higher religious education (such as al-D̲j̲āmiʿa al-Azhariy…

, the Arab League. Established at the end of the Second World War, this reflects the desire to renew the original unity, a desire which has continued to be active in Muslim communities following the decline and subsequent collapse of the Arab-Islamic empire. It was during the final years of the 19th century and before the First World War that Arab nationalists became aware of their national homogeneity, based on a common language and destiny, and on a similar way of life and culture ( ḳawmiyya [ q.v.]). Egypt, reverting to the cause of Arabism between the two …

[see naḥw and ṭabīʿa ]. ¶

b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Maʿmar al-ʿUd̲h̲rī , an Arab poet of the 1st/7th century, in literary tradition the most famous representative, and almost symbol of, the “ʿUd̲h̲rī(te)” school of poetry, with its chaste and idealized form of love. He is a quite authentic historical figure, although very few details of his life have come to light. He was born about 40/660, and spent his life in the Ḥid̲j̲āz and in Nad̲j̲d. It is also thought that, on the instigation of the parents of his beloved,…

(b.) Nak̲h̲la al-Mudawwar , Arab journalist and writer, born in Beirut in 1862, died in Cairo on 26 January 1907. D̲j̲amīl came from a wealthy, intellectually active, Christian family, and grew up in conditions which were very favourable to his development as a writer. His father (1822-89), who had attended lectures on Arabic grammar, French, and Italian in Beirut, was an interpreter at the French Consulate, and a member of the Beirut town council; he also took part in editing the Beirut newspaper Ḥadīḳat al-Ak̲h̲bār , as well as being a member of the Société Asiatique , Paris, and of al-D̲j̲a…

, a famous singer of Medina at the time of the first Umayyads. Tradition has it that she taught herself the elements of music and singing by listening to her neighbour Sāʾib K̲h̲āt̲h̲ir [ q.v.] (d. 63/682-3). It became unanimously recognized that her great natural talent put her in a class of her own, and she founded a school where, among numerous lesser-known singers and ḳiyān , Maʿbad [ q.v.], Ibn ʿĀʾis̲h̲a [ q.v.], Ḥabāba and Sallāma received their training. Artists as great as Ibn Surayd̲j̲ [ q.v.] would come to hear her, and would accept her critical judgments, while her salo…

[see ṭanburī d̲j̲amīl].

This term, commonly used in modern Arabic to mean a “society” or “association”, is derived from the root D̲J̲ - M - ʿ, meaning “to collect, join together, etc.”. In its modern sense it appears to have come into use quite recently, and was perhaps first used to refer to the organized monastic communities or congregations which appeared in the eastern Uniate Churches in Syria and Lebanon at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries ( e.g., D̲j̲amʿiyyat al-Muk̲h̲alliṣ , the Salvatorians, a Greek Catholic order founded c. 1708). In …

(a.) camel-driver or cameleer, also an owner of and hirer of camels (hence synonymous here with mukārī ) and a dealer in camels; Persian equivalent, us̲h̲turbān . During the pre-Islamic and post-Islamic periods camel caravans travelled enormous distances between the main centres of population and trade. Our sources indicate that relatively high wages were earned by the d̲j̲ammālūn during the ʿAbbāsid period. The d̲j̲ammāl , it also seems, came under the jurisdiction of ḥisba [ q.v.] officials in Islamic towns. The conduct of the camel-men came under some criticism from…

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. ʿAmr b. Ḥammād b. ʿAṭāʾ b. Yāsir , a satirical poet and humorist who lived in Baṣra in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th centuries. Nephew of Salm al-K̲h̲āsir [ q.v.], pupil of Abū ʿUbayda, and friend of Abū Nuwās, of whom he has left an exceptionally accurate portrait (see al-Ḥuṣrī, Zahr al-ādāb , 163; idem, D̲j̲amʿ al-d̲j̲awāhir , 115). Unlike many of his contemporaries, he does not seem to have gained entrance to the court of Bag̲h̲dād, despite his attempt during the reign of the caliph al-Ras̲h̲īd. He therefore re…

, a region of northern India, lying between lat. 32° and 33° N. and long. 74° and 76° E. and extending east of the Čenāb. It is bounded on the south by the Sialkōt district of the Pand̲j̲āb and on the north by Kas̲h̲mīr, of which it now constitutes a province, covering an area of 12,375 sq. miles. Its capital, the town of the same name, is situated on the right bank of the Tavī. The original name of This ancient principality, which lay in the valleys of the Tavī and the Čenāb, was Durgara, from which is derived the ethnic term Dogrā for its mountaineer inhabitants. Eve…