Encyclopedia of Christianity Online
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Subject: Religious Studies
Editors: Erwin Fahlbusch, Jan Milič Lochman, John Mbiti, Jaroslav Pelikan and Lukas Vischer
The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online describes modern-day Christian beliefs and communities in the context of 2000 years of apostolic tradition and Christian history. Based on the third, revised edition of the critically acclaimed German work Evangelisches Kirchenlexikon. The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online includes all 5 volumes of the print edition of 1999-2008 which has become a standard reference work for the study of Christianity past and present. Comprehensive, reflecting the highest standards in scholarship yet intended for a wide range of readers, the The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online also looks outward beyond Christianity, considering other world religions and philosophies as it paints the overall religious and socio-cultural picture in which the Christianity finds itself.
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The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online describes modern-day Christian beliefs and communities in the context of 2000 years of apostolic tradition and Christian history. Based on the third, revised edition of the critically acclaimed German work Evangelisches Kirchenlexikon. The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online includes all 5 volumes of the print edition of 1999-2008 which has become a standard reference work for the study of Christianity past and present. Comprehensive, reflecting the highest standards in scholarship yet intended for a wide range of readers, the The Encyclopedia of Christianity Online also looks outward beyond Christianity, considering other world religions and philosophies as it paints the overall religious and socio-cultural picture in which the Christianity finds itself.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Codex Iuris Canonici
(2,525 words)
The Codex Iuris Canonici (CIC, Code of canon law) was first published on May 27, 1917, and went in effect the following year, on May 19, 1918. Following Vatican I, it codified previous church law for the first time and, in principle, claimed validity for all baptized Christians (see 3). In 1983 it was replaced by a new book of Roman Catholic law that is also called CIC and is meant for the Latin church, that is, the Western church as distinct from the Eastern. Law for the Eastern churches in communion with Rome is contained in a special code meant for them, c…
Cognition
(523 words)
“Cognition” is a generic term in psychology that may refer equally to the process (how) or to the content (what) of human knowledge.
1. Cognition as Process In the earlier, more philosophically oriented psychology, “cognition” referred to the human faculty of reason as distinguished from will and feeling, but this a priori distinction is no longer maintained. For example, there now are theories about goal-directed behavior in terms of subjective probabilities and means-ends, or about emotions in terms of labeling of arous…
Collegialism
(511 words)
According to the traditional understanding, collegialism designates a theory advanced in justification of (Protestant) territorial church government (the last of such older theories after the territorial and episcopal systems). Unlike earlier theories, however, it includes both a sociological and a theological theory of the church and of church law. The basis is the view, derived from natural law and the Enlightenment, of the social nature of the church (as a
collegium, as for S. Pufendorf and J. H. Boehmer). In the middle of the 18th century early collegialists (e.g., C. M. Pfaff…
Colombia
(2,447 words)
1. General Situation The Republic of Colombia, in the extreme northwest of South America, covers the fourth largest area of any country in Latin America (after Brazil, Mexico, and Peru) and has the third largest population (2000 est.), after Brazil and Mexico. It has both a Liberal Party and a Conservative Party, each controlled oligarchically. Though governments have mostly been civilian, Colombia has suffered from well over a century of political instability. Since
La Violencia, the civil war from 1948 to 1958 that claimed as many as 280,000 lives, guerrilla groups …
Colonialism
(3,601 words)
1. Definition Scholars have debated the meaning of both “colonialism” and “imperialism.” Some regard colonialism as a form of imperialism, but others make a chronological distinction, relating colonialism to the period of mercantilist European empires up to the end of the 18th century and the…
Colonialism and Mission
(1,357 words)
1. Methodology The dialectic of the colonial situation (K. J. Bade), whereby colonial systems finally defeat themselves, applies also to the relation between colonialism and mission. It prohibits both unhistorical generalizations and overhasty ideological judgments. We must distinguish between early Iberian colonialism, that of non–Roman Catholic states after the Reformation, and that of modern imperialism, each having its own unique relation with mission. Even then, our account will be fragmentary, since we do not have the sources for a fully satisfying presentation.
2. Earl…
Colossians, Epistle to the
(689 words)
1. Occasion and Contents Colossians was written to a church that Paul did not found. It was designed to strengthen the position of its founder, Epaphras (1:7–8; 4:12–13), when erroneous teaching threatened the congregation. The first part (chaps. 1–2) contains doctrine and polemics. After the opening greeting in 1:1–2 comes an introduction (vv. 3–20), whose beginning reminds us of Phlm. 4–5. It culminates in a soteriological formula in vv. 13–14 and a hymn to Christ in vv. 15–20. In the then-and-now schema of vv. 21–23 the addressees are reminded of their reconciliation to God …
Commission of the Churches on International Affairs
(751 words)
The Commission of the Churches on International Affairs (CCIA) is part of the program activities of the World Council of Churches (WCC). It monitors international affairs of interest to the world fellowship of churches and assists the council in carrying out its witness in the sociopolitical sphere. Originally enjoying a large amount of autonomy within the WCC, it was later integrated in the program structure of the WCC. In 1991 it was transformed into the Board for International Affairs, located in Program Unit III (Justice, Peace, and Creation). For purpos…
Commonwealth of Independent States
(203 words)
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a voluntary association that includes 12 of the 15 republics of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). Proclaiming itself a successor to the USSR in some aspects of international affairs, the commonwealth provides a framework for unified military policy, a single currency, and a single “economic space.” The Minsk Agreement of December 8, 1991, which established the commonwealth, was signed by the three Slav republics Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. Later that month, eight other for…
Commune
(610 words)
According to Friedrich Engels (1820–95), monogamous marriage was the historical downfall of the feminine sex, degrading women to slavery (Sexism 1) and making them slaves of the lust of males (Sexuality) and mere instruments for the bearing of children. In response, he put forward three demands: (1) women should be reintroduced into public industry (Work 7); (2) prostitution should be ended and monogamy made a reality for both men and women; and (3) the raising and education of children should b…
Communication
(2,311 words)
1. Term As a special form of social action, communication denotes the exchange of signs between a communicator and a recipient. This method of conveying meaning relates to the thinking, feelings, and acts of others. In communication science the term “communication” is normally limited to exchanges between one ¶ person or persons and another or others with the help of spoken language, signs, and symbols, including nonverbal. It is usual to think of the verbal elements as being auditorily perceived and primarily rationally or cognitively process…
Communities, Spiritual
(1,146 words)
1. Developments in Protestantism 1.1 Justifiable Reformation criticism of the medieval monasteries and orders for merit-seeking and an emphasis on external matters effectively blocked the development within Protestantism either of biblically legitimate orders and brotherhoods such as the church had known since the Constantinian age or of Luther’s dream of a gathering of those who wished to be serious Christians (
German Mass [1526]). Although Luther recognized the Brethren of the Common Life and some monasteries remained (e.g., at Loccum and Amelungsborn), and although …
Community of Goods
(391 words)
The summaries in Acts 2:44–45 and 4:32–35 tell us that the primitive Christian community in Jerusalem had all things in common as members sold land and other property and shared the proceeds according to need. This account is not exclusively historical but also has the elements of an example and an ideal. As God’s people, the OT community was not to have any needy within it (Deut. 15:4). The statement that the first Christians had all things in common corresponds to Greek and Hellenistic thinking regarding personal relationships and the ideals of friendship, co…
Community Service
(470 words)
1. Development Community service has developed in recent decades under the leadership of America, England (settlement movement), and Holland (Opbouwwerk). But behind it is a longer history of community organization with different principles, aims, local developments, and methods (A. Dunham). Traditions of community development, social planning, social action, and citizen participation have also played a part. Socially motivated church groups have undertaken work among marginal groups who lack influence and are the victims of discrimination. Conscious…
Comoros
(614 words)
1. General Situation Situated in the Mozambique Channel between northern Madagascar and the southeast coast of Africa, the archipelago of the Comoros comprises four volcanic islands: from northwest to southeast, Njazídja, Mwali, Nzwani (formerly called Grande Comore, Mohéli, and Anjouan respectively), and Mayotte. With its marine type of tropical climate, such subsistence crops as cassava, sweet potatoes, bananas, and upland rice are grown, although with the high density of population it remains ne…
Compromise
(541 words)
1. Concept The word “compromise” derives from
compromitto, which in Roman law meant “agree on an arbiter.” Today the term indicates that parties in a conflict freely reach a solution by some yielding on all sides. Compromise may be highly rated in virtue of the principle of consent, as in early African societies, or it may be disparaged, as in European feudalism. Its high status today, especially in England, is a result of the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries and the free play of interest groups in liberal 19th-century orders.
2. Meaning Compromise between norms can take…
Conciliarism
(738 words)
“Conciliarism” is the theory that general councils represent the supreme church court, specifically, that they are superior to the pope. Its roots lie in the discussions of medieval canonists (Canon Law), ¶ especially concerning papal immunity and responsibility. The heresy clause in the Decretum Gratiani (ca. 1140) states the principle that the pope can be judged by no one as long as he does not deviate from the faith (40.6). An extension of the concept of heresy included simony and persistence in schism. In the 12th century this line of thought led to a broad discussion of …
Conciliarity
(691 words)
1. The term “conciliarity” relates to the constant inner need of the church to come together representatively in order to pray, confer, and make decisions. This process is part of the Christian tradition and serves to give expression to the unity of the church on every level—local, regional, and global—and to maintain the quality of its life and witness relative to its origin and commission. Conciliarity is an essential mark of the church that gives it a concrete and visible structure in the for…
Concordat
(905 words)
1. Term A concordat is a treaty between the Holy See and a state that comprehensively defines the legal position of the Roman Catholic Church within that state (Church and State). The 1983 Codex Iuris Canonici uses the terms
conventio (can. 3) and
concordatum (can. 365.1 n. 2). A concordat involves state as well as church law. Although there may be debate as to the relative status of concordats, in practice civil law always take precedence over a concordat.
2. History 2.1. Medieval treaties between secular and spiritual powers dealt only with specific issues, but in view of …
Conference of European Churches
(1,090 words)
1. Rise The Conference of European Churches (CEC), the most widely recognized regional ecumenical organization for Europe, derives from the period after World War II. In the international divisions and dangerous cold-war tensions of the mid-1950s, a small group of church leaders in Eastern and Western Europe began to consider together the possibility of bringing into conversation churches in European countries separated by different political, economic, and social systems. Their aim was to enable the church to become an instrument of peace and understanding. Developing out of a…
Confessing Church
(1,152 words)
1. The Confessing Church arose in the 1930s in the Deutsche Evangelische Kirche, or German Evangelical Church (GEC), as various church groups opposed the penetration of the church by the spirit of National Socialism (Fascism). The Confessing Church made the claim that it alone was the true GEC. On May 9, 1933, the Young Reformation Movement (under H. Lilje et al.) demanded the freedom of the church from all political influence but politically accepted the new German state. In the elections of July 23, 1933, the German Christians (GC) won a major victory…
Confession of Faith
(1,484 words)
1. The Nature and Task of Confession In confession, the Christian community (Congregation) gives its expression to God’s saving action and fellowship with Christ. It accepts God’s saving action, his Word and sacrament, and it confesses Jesus Christ as the only basis of faith. In him the community also confesses God’s comprehensive work as the Trinity. Through confession, faith in Jesus Christ takes a binding communal form, even as it includes personal confession. It embraces faith, life, and action. As…
Confession of Sins
(1,779 words)
“Confession” refers to an acknowledgment of sin by an individual or a group, made either privately or publicly. Its various forms include (1) individual private prayer (spoken or unspoken); (2) spoken confession by individuals to a priest, followed by individual or group absolution; (3) spoken confession by an individual or by a group in the presence of the whole congregation; and (4) general confession by a priest (minister) or by the whole congregation as a part of public worship, followed typ…
Confessions and Creeds
(5,234 words)
In one of its meanings, “confession” refers to a declaration of religious belief. It can be as simple as “Jesus is Lord” (1 Cor. 12:3) or as detailed as the Augsburg Confession (1530) or similar Protestant expressions of faith in the 16th and 17th centuries. “Creed” refers to a concise statement of Christian doctrine, typically produced by a council of the early church. The Apostles’ Creed and Nicene Creed are perhaps the most famous of such statements.
1. Confessions as Statements of Faith Christian confessions serve the purposes of acknowledgment, praise, and delimitation. A…
Confirmation
(2,481 words)
1. Baptism and Confirmation Confirmation owes its existence to baptism, regardless of whether it precedes or follows baptism, or whether it is viewed as the personal acceptance of what was done at baptism. In the early church the sacrament of confirmation (Initiation Rites 2.3–4) administered by the Roman Catholic Church developed out of baptism and originally was part of it. The baptizing presbyter or bishop, after dipping in the water, conferred the gift of the Holy Spirit by the laying on of hands and anointing. In the third century this conferral became a sacramental act on its own. In c…
Conflict
(904 words)
Today the term “conflict” denotes a wide variety of collisions of impulses, interests, powers, and groups on the psychological, social, political, and international levels, with or without the use of force, and with or without a symmetry of the conflicting interests or parties. The exclusively negative evaluation of conflict today in popular parlance is only partly shared by psychology (Psychotherapy) and not at all by sociology. Since the term is used so broadly on so many different levels, whi…
Confucianism
(1,025 words)
The modern term “Confucianism” has no exact equivalent in traditional Chinese doxography. It denotes the sum of the officially sanctioned values and norms that have influenced, and to some extent still influence, the fabric of Chinese social structure, visible, e.g., in ancestor worship, subordination in the five key human relations (prince and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, teacher and student), and the governing of everyday life by moral concepts. The nearest Chinese equivalent is the teaching of the Ju, cultured officia…
Congo (Brazzaville)
(679 words)
1. General Situation The Republic of Congo, whose capital is Brazzaville, is bordered by Gabon, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic, as well as by the former Zaire, known since May 1997 as the Democratic Republic of Congo. The most important tribal groups are the 10 groups of the Kongo peoples (840,000), 15 groups of Teke (490,000), 6 groups of Mboshi (195,000), and 6 groups of Mbete (140,000). There are altogether over 75 ethnic groups speaking 60 different languages. Congo includes small percentages of other African peoples, as well as Europeans and Asians. French…
Congregation
(6,436 words)
1. NT 1.1.
Term The word “congregation” has become established alongside “church” as English translations of the central NT word “ecclesia” (Gk. ekklēsia, originally meaning “assembly, gathering”). In modern theology a distinction is seen that is materially, though not semantically, based on the NT but that raises ecumenical problems. The congregation is the specific local assembly, whereas the church is the people of God as a universal entity and in its extralocal forms of organization. 1.2.
Beginnings In its beginnings, emerging Christianity was mostly organized loca…
Congregationalism
(1,308 words)
1. Polity The term “Congregationalism” is used in both a more general and a more specific sense. In the former, it denotes a type of church polity in which episcopal and synodic elements have no place, with authority being concentrated in the local congregation and with extralocal conferences having only an advisory function. Today most Baptists, Quakers (Friends, Society of), the Disciples of Christ (Christian Church [Disciples of Christ]), and individual free churches are Congregationalists in this sense (see 2). In the more specific sense the reference is to a fellowship…
Conscience
(3,149 words)
1. In Philosophy 1.1.
Definition and Terminology “Conscience” (from Lat. conscientia; see also Lat. synderesis and Gk. syneidēsis) means (1) the faculty of human personality that decides the moral worth of actions, and (2) the making of such a judgment by comparing specific actions to general norms. According to whether these norms are set by the self or by others, conscience is autonomous or authoritarian. According to the verdict, we have a good conscience or a bad conscience. 1.2.
Conscience in the History of Philosophy Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.) di…
Conscientious Objection
(1,274 words)
1. Term As distinct from “pacifism,” the term “conscientious objection” denotes the individual refusal of military service. The expression came into use with World War I. A distinction is sometimes made between a strict conscientious objection, when a person refuses to engage in any form of defensive action, and a modified conscientious objection, when a person resists service only in the armed forces (Force and Nonviolence). In the United States objectors must demonstrate that they object to all …
Consecration
(1,055 words)
1. Consecrations are rites of initiation that fundamentally alter the religious and/or social status of a person or that bestow a special dignity on a person’s surroundings. Whereas secular understanding views consecrations as ceremonies of acceptance or maturity (e.g., youth dedications), in religious communities this concept, which even in pre-Christian times occupied a central position, refers to liturgical services that place persons, things, or locales into a special relationship with the holy. The various understandings of ch…
Consensus
(1,679 words)
1. Term Derived from the Latin, the term “consensus” suggests agreement, union, and harmony. In anthropology it is used for the unity of the senses and perception that influences the will and the conscience. In social philosophy it denotes public opinion and common sense and expresses the desire for agreement in intrahuman relations and common enterprises. The reference may be to basic agreements or to the result of a search for understanding in face of a plurality of views. There are many forms of consensus in society, even though it may not be formulated explicitly or co…
Conservatism
(3,294 words)
1. Secular Usage 1.1.
Definitions In its most common usage, the word “conservatism” refers to attitudes, worldviews, ideologies, organizations, groups, and social constructs that are fundamentally oriented to preserving the status quo. The specific positions taken vary depending on context, but common to them all are reactionary and defensive principles of resistance to change, progress, and emancipation, of trying to block the effects of the Enlightenment and the expansion of political participation and social equality. Conservatism took shape as a coherent political …
Consolation, Comfort
(859 words)
In pastoral care, consolation involves subjective experiences in which painful difficulties in relation to God, to others, and to the self are either overcome or are made bearable. The aim of comfort and consolation as a basic task of Christian pastoral care is to help people in situations of stress or crisis, such as in loss and distress through dying, death, divorce (Marriage and Divorce), sickness (Health and Illness), and handicaps, and to do so in such a way that people are able to resolve …
Constitution
(312 words)
“Constitution” is a legal term with significance both for legislation and for the theory of norms (Law). It is used not only in connection with political states (i.e., governing the manner in which sovereign power is distributed) but also in Roman Catholic law (church law).
1. A constitution is a technical, legal way of publishing universal church legislation (Jurisdiction, Ecclesiastical). Along with the motu proprio, the apostolic constitution issues basic papal laws (Pope, Papacy). The conciliar constitution (Councils of the Church) is …
Consumption
(674 words)
1. Definition 1.1. In economic theory, consumption involves the use of goods and services in private households. Statistics cover only those goods acquired on regular markets and not the goods and services due to private initiative or private employment.
1.2. In terms of attitudes, consumption relates to the use of goods and services that meet human needs. Distinguishing these activities from productive private or leisure-time work is difficult.
2. As Individual Decision 2.1. Common to all of us is the fact that we have recurrent needs and attempt to satisfy them. T…
Contemplation
(1,149 words)
1. Term The Latin word
contemplari originally had to do with auguries in a context of sacrifice. It involved consultation in the sacred precincts. It became a religious term as a rendering of the (Neo-)Platonic word
theōreō. According to Plotinus (ca. 205–70), each thing is contemplation of the divine according to the measure of its own essential truth. We ourselves experience oneness with all things in the ascent of contemplation (Platonism). This interpretation was gradually given a Christian twist by means of the message of love. As Hugh of St. Victor (1096–1141) put it, “Lov…
Contextual Theology
(1,630 words)
1. Term Contextual theology is theology predicated with reference to its context. Contextuality, then, means relation to the substance and nature of the context, which goes beyond merely the literary setting to include geographic, linguistic, social, political, cultural, and ideological factors. Contextual theology is faith-knowledge on the basis of both the biblical revelation and the contemporary reference. In contextual theology a text is not only a literary unit (e.g., from the tradition of the Bible or the church). Rather, it is the starting point or deter…
Continuing Education
(1,552 words)
1. Term The term “continuing education” refers most broadly to formal study by adults, usually as part-time students. The men and women involved have gone beyond the earlier phase of their general education, where schooling represented a general preparation for life, and now are taking responsibility for their own choices about further instruction. Various institutions and voluntary groups offer the possibility of additional training or retraining in various spheres to meet the challenge of social change. The phrase “continuing education” stands between a term such as “…
Conversion
(2,993 words)
1. Conversion to Christian Faith In Christian usage, but also in other religions, “conversion” denotes a sudden or longer process of complete reorientation on the part of individuals or groups. One might say that a person was converted to Islam or that a tribe of Saxons was converted to Christianity. Conversion is from and to. It refers to a fundamental change of conviction that leads to visible results, such as joining another religious communion, changing one’s lifestyle, or adopting a new self-und…
Coptic Orthodox Church
(756 words)
1. Strictly speaking, the name “Coptic Orthodox Church” applies only to the ancient Oriental Orthodox Church in Egypt. It is wrongly used also for the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The head of the Coptic Orthodox Church is traditionally called the pope or patriarch of Alexandria. The title “pope” was used for the bishop of Alexandria before it came into use for the bishop of Rome (Pope, Papacy).
2. Tradition ascribes the origin of the Coptic Orthodox Church to St. Mark, whom it regards as the first bishop of Alexandria. According to Egyptian sources, John Mark came from th…
Corinthians, Epistles to the
(2,371 words)
1. Significance The Corinthian epistles of the apostle Paul are a collection of letters from the middle of the first century a.d. This collection contains important documents that throw light on a decisive period of the history of the primitive Christian community. The letters show that different Christian groups stood in opposition to each other and that firm theological and ethical positions had not been defined regarding the social, cultural, and religious situation in the cosmopolitan city of Corinth. In additi…
Corpora doctrinae
(644 words)
Corpora doctrinae (collections of teaching) are proclamations or collections of creeds and confessions. These
corpora, which included ancient and modern statements, some of which were local and others that were accepted more universally, together document the continuity of confession and functioned to safeguard the confessional status of various territories and cities in eastern, central, and northern Germany between 1560 and 1580. Preliminary stages are the
Doctrinalia and teaching rules in the church orders from 1535. The idea of
corpus doctrinae comes from P. Melanchtho…
Corpus Iuris Canonici
(1,845 words)
1. Contents The Corpus Iuris Canonici (Collection of canon law) is a set of six collections of law that functioned as the primary source of Roman Catholic church law from the Middle Ages until 1918, when it was superseded by the Codex Iuris Canonici. The Corpus was first named as such in the brief
Cum pro munere pastorali (1580) of Gregory XIII (1572–85). Along with Roman law, the elements of the Corpus had become a part of European common law. 1.1.
Decretum Gratiani The Decretum Gratiani (Decree of Gratiani), originally entitled Concordia discordantium canonum, came into bein…
Corruption
(864 words)
1. Term The term “corruption” comes from Lat.
corrumpere (break to pieces, spoil). Philosophers from Thucydides (ca. 460-ca. 400 b.c.) through Plato (427–347 b.c.) to F. Nietzsche (1844–1900) have presented corruption as the negative side of teaching about the state. From the days of Augustine (354–430), “corruption” has been a term in dogmatics for original sin. For investigative journalists in the United States, “corruption,” ever since the 19th century, has been a term for bribery, the misuse of power and office, nepotism—in general, any conduc…
Costa Rica
(1,519 words)
1. The Country and Its History Costa Rica is a Central American republic with neighbors Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south. The people are mostly of Catalan, Basque, and Galician descent. The first Europeans arrived in Costa Rica in 1502, and within the century the area had become part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Colonialism). In 1821 Costa Rica and other parts of Central America joined Mexico in declaring their independence from Spain. It later joined the Central American Federation (1823), but not long after it left this association to become fully independent (1838). Earl…
Councils of the Church
(4,143 words)
1. Term “Council,” as well as the originally synonymous “synod” (from Lat.
concilium and Gk.
synodos, both meaning “assembly”), refers to gatherings of church representatives for the purpose of discussing matters of faith and order, reaching decisions, and issuing decrees. The Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church use the term “council” mainly for gatherings of bishops. Modern usage, which distinguishes national and provincial
synods from ¶ general
councils, developed at a later date, with its beginnings in the Middle Ages. The Orthodox Church recognizes only the s…
Counseling
(1,053 words)
1. Definition In the broader sense, “counseling” refers to almost any oral or written assistance that is given by a qualified counselor to those who seek counsel. The spectrum reaches from educational and vocational counseling to medical consultation, marriage and family counseling, and family or individual psychotherapy. The narrower technical sense relates less to the variety of those that seek counsel, or to the nature of their problems, and more to the actual process and goal of counseling. He…
Counseling Centers, Christian
(1,271 words)
1. Definition Church counseling centers are church institutions at which those seeking advice are offered psychologically qualified counseling in questions relating to education, partnership, marriage, and life in general.
2. Europe In Germany 60 percent of those participating in a 1992 survey regarded Protestant church counseling centers as no less a function of the church than the traditional preaching, pastoral care, and Christian education. Of those surveyed, 72 percent said that the church should care for the counseling ¶ of individuals, and 77 percent felt the church…
Counterculture
(2,379 words)
1. Term Since the 1970s the term “counterculture” has been applied to a number of late 20th-century sociopolitical movements opposed to capitalist, technological society (Capitalism; Technology). In common usage, however, the term is historically identified with the romantic, youth-based “hippie” movement of the 1960s and early 1970s, which embodied the dissatisfaction of a segment of the younger generation with the conformist, consumer ethos (Consumption) of postwar Western society—particularly a…
Covenant
(3,514 words)
1. OT 1.1.
Translation and Usage The Hebrew word bĕrît, “covenant,” occurs 287 times in the OT, only in the singular. Even the latest attempts (e.g., by E. Kutsch) have not convincingly clarified its etymology. Showing a derivation from a Semitic root, however, would not necessarily throw light on its semantic function (J. Barr), which can and must be understood in terms of its semantic field and the relevant context. In translation, the LXX does not use
synthēkē (agreement, contract) but almost always
diathēkē (last will and testament). The Vg (Jerome [ca. 345–420]), howeve…
Cranmer, Thomas
(1,009 words)
Born in 1489 at Aslockton, Nottinghamshire, second son of a minor squire, Thomas Cranmer completed a doctorate in divinity at Cambridge. There he acquired a knowledge of Scripture, respect for its authority, and interest in its plain exposition. Luther’s revolt had an impact in the 1520s, and papal resistance to reform convinced Cranmer that correction of abuses demanded elimination of the power of Rome. In 1529, while discussing the crisis in Henry VIII’s suit for marriage annulment, Cranmer suggested to two of the king’s advisers that European faculties of…
Creation
(7,608 words)
1. In the History of Religion 1.1.
Perspectives on Creation Philosophy and natural science trace the origin of the world and humanity back to impersonal, law-governed causes. Religion, however, finds a suprahuman plan behind life and its foundations. In addition to the elementary language of confession (Confession of Faith), reflection on creation also can draw on philosophical and scientific argumentation, which makes use of elements and general concepts familiar from the world around us. It may also use the language of myth, which presents creation ¶ in the story of a one-time,…
Creationism
(697 words)
The contemporary North American usage of this term most frequently signifies the closely related movements known as
scientific creationism (also called
creation science) and
biblical creationism. Essential to each of these perspectives is the belief that God brought instantaneously into being, in mature form and within an extraordinary period of six 24-hour days, a few (6–10) thousand years ago, each of the principal kinds of astronomical structures and bodies (e.g., galaxies, stars, and planets) and each distinct “kind” of life-form. Of comparable importance is…
Creativity
(927 words)
1. Definition In spite of intensive investigation of the phenomenon of creativity, no precise definition is yet possible. ¶ Qualities of creativity such as novelty, originality, and uniqueness are helpful indicators but still do not yield an exact definition. The starting point of a theological approach to the problem must be that in modern studies, interest focuses especially on humans as creative beings and on their creative production (Anthropology). Yet creativity can be relevantly treated theologically only in the context of God…
Creed
(72 words)
A creed is a concise statement of Christian doctrine, typically produced by one of the councils of the early church. In this encyclopedia, the fullest treatment of “creed” appears in “Confessions and Creeds.” See Apostles’ Creed; Athanasian Creed; Barmen Declaration; Darmstadt Declaration; Niceno Constantinopolitan Creed The EditorsBibliography J. N. D. Kelly, ed.,
Early Christian Creeds (3d ed.; London, 1972) J. H. Leith,
Creeds of the Churches (3d ed.; Atlanta, 1982).
Creed of Pius IV
(295 words)
Following up on a decision of Trent (Session 24, “Decree on Reform,” cans. 2 and 12), Pius IV in his bull
Injunctum nobis (November 13, 1564) required all bishops and holders of pastoral benefices, before taking office, to make a profession of their Catholic faith (Confession of Faith) according to an obligatory formula, often called the
Professio fidei Tridentina. This formula contained the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed plus the main doctrinal articles of the Roman Catholic Church on Scripture and tradition, the sacraments, justification, the sacrifi…
Crisis Cult
(421 words)
1. The phrase “crisis cult” refers broadly to a collective attempt to meet a crisis situation along cultic lines. It is not a matter of personal religion in crises in individual life but involves a group situation. Research into crisis cults is thus done by sociologists. Crises affect not only religious groups but also political, racial, and social groups and involve political, military, economic, cultural, or religious reasons. In reality, there is seldom a single cause. Although a crisis is an acute situation whose outcome is uncertain, some scholars speak of permanent crises (e.g., …
Crisis Intervention
(597 words)
1. Crisis intervention is a response to acute crises in human life. It developed out of care for mourners (Grief), the depressed, and potential suicides but now covers many other crises. C. Kulessa categorizes the various crises as biological (somatopsychical and maturational), psychological (psychosomatic and psychosocial), and social (sociopsychiatric and sociopsychological). E. Erikson refers to development crises (oedipal, puberty, pregnancy, family; Development 2). Severe crises may involve…
Critical Theory
(1,587 words)
1. History Critical theory, or the Frankfurt school, is closely related in origin to the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research (founded in 1930) and the
Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung. M. Horkheimer (1895–1976), T. W. Adorno (1903–69), H. Marcuse (1899–1979), and W. Benjamin (1892–1940) were the main representatives of the first generation. They were forced into exile under National Socialism, and only Horkheimer and Adorno returned to Germany after World War II. Beginning in the 1960s, a group of social philosophers and sociologists that had been in contact wi…
Criticism
(1,448 words)
1. Term The term “criticism” (from Gk.
kritikos, deriving from
krinō, “discern; divide”) already in Plato (427–347 b.c.; Platonism) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.; Aristotelianism) had the two senses that it still bears today: the ability to make logical and legal judgments, and the art of rhetoric and philosophy. These two senses constitute the formal meaning. In the modern era the term also has a substantive meaning of its own.
2. Early History In antiquity the Romans took the term in the narrower sense of the
ars iudicandi as distinct from the
ars inveniendi (Cicero [106–43 b.c.]). F…
Croatia
(1,050 words)
Croatia (with provinces of Croatia proper, Dalmatia, the Dubrovnik region, Istria, and Slavonia) is a Mediterranean country situated on the Adriatic Sea. In 1991, when Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia, it had a population that the United Nations estimated at 4.5 million. Borders shifted in 1991, when one-third of Croatian land was captured by rebel Croatian Serbs, and again in 1995, when Croatia recaptured all but 5 percent of these lands. The ethnic composition of the country b…
Cross
(2,924 words)
1. General The prominence of the cross as a Christian symbol is rooted in the NT account of the saving death of Jesus on the cross at Golgotha. The wealth of the symbolism is due to the link with another line of interpretation that was originally independent, namely, the cross as an eschatological seal. In this view, the cross is a sign whose bearers commit themselves to the protection and possession of God at the last judgment. Basic here is the idea of sealing, which carries with it from the legal sphere the element of inviolability. The adoption of Ezek. 9:4 in Rev. 7:2 and elsewhere bears wit…
Crusades
(2,254 words)
At a time when we have reason to be anxious about world peace, the Crusades epitomize the danger that Christians will discount the way of reconciliation and trust in the naked power of military might (War). Though it is essential that we take note of this temptation, we must be careful neither to make “Crusades” a mere slogan in criticism of the church nor to use the term uncritically for any good cause. We must study the Crusades as a historical phenomenon.
1. Background The Crusades give their name to a whole epoch, for they affected every sphere of life. Because of their var…
Crypt
(324 words)
The word “crypt” (from Gk.
kryptō, “conceal, cover over”) was used in early Christian times for burial places in the catacombs. It then came to denote a vaulted, sacred chamber under the church chancel, which in large churches might extend under the nave and transepts (Church Architecture). Reached by stairs, crypts served as sites in which to store and venerate relics and to bury saints. When furnished with altars, they were also used as chapels. In the forms of crosses, crypts appeared by the fifth century in North Africa, southeastern Europe, and Asia Minor (e.g., St. Demetrius Chu…
Crypto-Calvinism
(464 words)
1. Term The term “Crypto-Calvinism” (or secret Calvinism) came into use in the Protestant doctrinal controversies following the Interim of Augsburg (1548), when the Gnesio-Lutherans (or genuine Lutherans) began calling the adherents of Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) Philippists and also Crypto-Calvinists. This polemical term arose in connection with the so-called second eucharistic controversy (Eucharist 3.3), which was stirred up by the Consensus Tigurinus, the Zurich agreement between H. Bullin…
Cuba
(1,143 words)
1. Geography The subtropical island of Cuba was reached by Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) on October 27, 1492. It is approximately 1,200 km. (750 mi.) long and averages 110 km. (68 mi.) wide. It is the largest of the Greater Antilles. Cuba consists of mountains and plains and also embraces 1,600 islands. Pico Turquino, the highest mountain, reaches 1,947 m. (6,388 ft.). The south coast especially is swampy. The largest navigable river, the Canto, empties into the southern gulf.
2. Population The population of Cuba consists for the most part of Spaniards, former Afri…
Cuius regio eius religio
(243 words)
The slogan
Cuius regio eius religio (whose the region, his the religion) was coined at the beginning of the 17th century by the jurist J. Stephani (1544–1623) to describe the right that the Peace of Augsburg (1555) granted to secular rulers to determine the confession that would be binding on all their subjects. This principle thus transferred to Protestant rulers both spiritual jurisdiction and episcopal power (Bishop, Episcopate) along the lines of Episcopalianism. In a broader sense the formula formed part of the
ius reformandi that traditionalists brought to the Augsburg de…
Cultic Meal
(564 words)
1. A meal assumes a religious meaning if it is approached in a ritual manner, as indicated by the specific food and drink used, as well as the occasion, time, and other factors. Such meals function as rites of communication between one person and another, or between people and the divine. In the latter case particularly, they are usually linked to sacrifices (sacrificial meals).
2. The social character predominates when the meals relate to making or celebrating a covenant (e.g., wedding feasts or meals to strengthen kinship bonds). When the covenant is with God, cultic me…
Cultic Purity
(564 words)
1. Cultic purity primarily involves issues of contact and of purification that one who is part of the cultus must respect. Underlying the concept is a sense of the existence of clean and unclean as antithetical religious realities. Cultic purity is sought with reference to the teachings of the religions, according to which pleasing God and maintaining positive dealings with higher powers demand a certain purity of both worshipers and the related cultic objects (Temple). At the same time, partici…