Religion Past and Present

[German Version] (CCC) was founded in 1973 by 18 churches in Kingston, Jamaica. The CCC became the first ecumenical institution in the world, with the Roman Catholic Church as one of its founding members. The other Churches are: the Anglican Church, Baptists, Methodists, Orthodox Churches, Reformed Churches, Lutherans, Bohemian and Moravian Brethren, Presbyterians, and the Salvation Army. The CCC was the result of a process of closer cooperat…

[German Version] (baptized Apr 18, 1605, Marini, died Jan 12, 1674, Rome), Italian composer, the first major composer of oratorios. In 1628, Carissimi was appointed director of music at Assisi, and soon moved on to Rome as director of music at the Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum, a position he held for life. He was ordained priest in 1637. Among his students were Alessandro Scarlatti and Marc-Antoine Charpentier. Carissimi's most important oratorios include Jephte, Jonas, Baltazar, and ¶ Judicium extremum. In addition, Carissimi composed hundreds of motets, mass…

[German Version] I. Establishment – II. History – III. Current Situation I. Establishment 1. Founders. The notion of caritas as social assistance to those in need deriving from a sense of Christian responsibility has existed as long as the church itself. However, the organizational unification of such efforts beyond the boundaries of the dioceses and without exclusive ties to the socio-charitable religious orders is a modern phenomenon, which did not emerge within Catholicism until…

[German Version] (1676?; baptized Aug 16, 1677, Öhringen/county of Hohenlohe – Jun 13, 1757, Meldorf/Holstein), doctor and radical pietist. The son of a pharmacist and already influenced by Pietism in his formative years, he became the doctor in his home town after studying medicine in Halle (pupil of Georg Ernst Stahl) and Strasbourg. Deported because of his radical pietistic activities, Carl found positions as ¶ a personal physician at the courts of pietistic high nobility in Büdingen (1708–1728), Berleburg (1728–1736) and Copenhagen (1736–175…

[German Version] Sremski Karlovci

[German Version] (Dec 4, 1795, Ecclefechan, Scotland – Feb 5, 1881, London), critic of contemporary civilization and literary figure of tremendous reputation, the most important representative of idealistic (Idealism) thinking of the 19th century in England, influenced by Puritanism (Puritans/Puritanism), who protested against utilitarianism, materialism, the predatory competition of the industrial age and the general lack of intellectual culture in humank…

[German Version] The Carmelite Order goes back to a community of occidental hermits on Mount Carmel, who were granted a rule by the patriarch of Jerusalem in 1210. It obligated them to a strict contemplative life. The spirituality of the community, led by a prior, was marked by anachoretic traditions, the example of the prophet Elijah, and veneration of the Virgin Mary. In 1240, th…

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[German Version] (Heb. כַּרְמֶל, “fruit garden, orchard”), limestone and chalk mountain range in northern Palestine, up to 552m high, to the south of the tribe of Asher (Josh 19:26; Tribes of Israel). The OT praises the mountain's beauty (Isa 35:2). In the 3rd and 2nd millennia …

[German Version] (May 18, 1891, Ronsdorf – Sep 14, 1970, Santa Monica, CA), a major proponent of the philosophy of logical positivism or empiricism. After studying physics, mathematics, and philosophy (1910–1914), he earned his doctorate from Jena in 1921 with a philosophical dissertation on space. In 1926 he joined the Vienna Circle, a group seeking to use the tools of modern logic to formulate a “scientific world view” based on empiricism. Metaphysics and religion were rejected as empirically untestable and hence meaningless. In 1928 Carnap published his magnum opus, Der logische …

[German Version] The word carnival (see also Shrove …

[German Version] A group of anti-Puritan/anti-Calvinist theologians from the 17th century. The name is derived from Charles I of England. Its most prominent representatives were L. Andrewes, W. Laud, and Jeremy Taylor. The anti-Calvinist movement in the Church of England possibly began with a sermon held by the then bishop of London, R. Bancroft, on Feb 9, 1589 at Paul's Cross in front of St. Paul's Cathedral. In this sermon, Bancroft lashed out at the Puritans and claimed that the bishops of the Church of England could legitimate their position and authority on the basis of divine right ( iu…

[German Version] I. History – II. Carolingian Reforms (Church and Educational Refor…

[German Version] (c. 1465, Venice – 1525 or 1526, Venice). With G. Bellini, the Italian painter Vittore Carpaccio was a dominant figure in Venetian painting between 1490 and 1510. In 1511 he called himself pittore di stato. The nucleus of his work consists of cycles for the assembly rooms of several Venetian confraternities. The large-scale canvasses incorporate vivid details of everyday life but also the concern of the republic and its leading families in the face of the danger posed by the Turks. In 1490 Carpaccio began painting nine scenes from the legend of Saint Ursula (Venice, Accademia) for the Scuola di Santa Orsola. In 1502 he began work for the Scuola di San Giogio degli Schiavoni, the confraternity of the Dalmatians, on a cycle of nine scenes devo…

[German Version] (Dec 26, 1904, Havanna – Apr 24, 19…

[German Version] The origins of the Christian Gnostic community (Gnosis/Gnosticism: II, 2) of the Carpocratians reach back before 150 ce. According to Clement of Alexandria ( Strom. III 5.2f.), it was founded by Epiphanes son of Carpocrates, who died at the age of 17 and was allegedly venerated as a god in Same on the island of Cephallenia. In his work De iustitia (CPG 1123), Epiphanes understood justice as an original equality of all, polemicized against the lawgiver, and advocated a community of goods and women (Clem. Strom. III 5.1–11. 2). According to the teaching of th…

[German Version] (Sep 29, 1699, Goslar – Jun 6, 1768, Weimar) gained his M.A. in Jena in 1725, became a Gymnasium teacher in 1737, becoming director in Weimar in 1745. The first of the theological Wolffians (C. Wolff) to do so, Carpov developed his entire dogmatics in a strictly mathematical and demonstrative manner. While in material respects he held fast to orthodox doctrine by explicitly confessing the symbolic books, he wanted to assure the academic standing of theology by applying the methodus scientifica. With the aid of a rational theory of revelation, he soug…

[German Version] (feast: Apr 13); Eus. Hist. eccl. IV 15.48 relates that the hypomnemata of the martyrdom of these two clergymen and of Agathonice, the sister of Papylus, were still ex…

[German Version] An extraordinarily influential academic family of jurists active primarily in Saxony between 1550 and 1800 1. Benedikt I (Oct 22, 1565 – Nov 26, 1624), jurist; 1592 University of Wittenberg, 1594 chancellor in Reinstein/Blankenburg, 1602 in Colditz/Dresden, and counselor at the Dresden court of appeal. His sons: …

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[German Version] (Jan 19, 1736, Upper Marlboro, MD – Mar 12, 1815, Baltimore, MD), Catholic bishop (1789–1808) and archbishop of Baltimore (1808–1815). As the first Catholic bishop in the United States, Carroll was primarily responsible for organizing…

[German Version] (baptized May 5, 1839, Moylough, County Galway, Ireland – May 6, 1917, Melbourne, Australia), Roman Catholic ar…

[German Version] a philosophical trend of late 17th and early 18th-century Europe going back to R. Descartes. Initially, the appellation “Cartesians” was applied to those who had known Descartes personally and either adopted some of his teachings or simply disseminated them. These included, in the Netherlands: Cornelius van Hooghelande (c.1590–1676), Heinri Reniersz (latinized as Reneri, c.1593–1639), Henri le Roy (latinized as Regius, 1598–1679), and Adrian Heereboord …

[German Version] I. Names – II. Geography – III. History and Society – IV. Religion and Literature I. Names Even though in ancient literary contexts Carthage was occasionally called Tyre, Tarshish, Kaine Polis, Kadmeia, Oinus, Kaccabe, Afrike, and Byrsa, the official name of the city was, nonetheless, always Qrtḍdšt, “New City.” The city was called “New City” to characterize it as an establishment of the “Old City,” Tyre (in Phoenicia). It shared this name with Phoenician settlem…

[German Version] On May 1, 418, guided by Augustine and Aurelius of Carthage, more than 200 North African bishops meeting in Carthage passed nine canons against Pelagianism (Pelagius; CChr.SL 149, 69–78; DH, 222–230, misnumbered after canon 2). The canons emphasized inherited original sin ( originale peccatum) on the basis of Rom 5:12, infant baptism (cc. 1–3), grace as the infusion of love (not simply forgiveness, revelation, or relief; cc. 4–6), and the…

[German Version] The strictly ascetic and contemplative Carthusian order traces its origins to Bruno the Carthusian, who in 1084 joined with six like-minded companions to establish a monastic community of hermits at Cartusia (La Chartreuse), in the mountains near Grenoble. An order came into being in 1127, when Guigo I, the fifth prior of La Chartreuse, composed a customary ( Consuetudines monasticae ) for the handful of Carthusian communities. The customary, which called for a harmonious blend of eremitic and cenobitic life, w…

[German Version] (c. 1535, Hertfordshire – Dec 27, 1603, Warwick) was the leading intellectual figure of English Presbyterianism (Presbyterians) in the reign of Elizabeth I. In 1570, he became professor of divinity at Cambridge University. His lectures on Acts, in which he expressed presbyterian views on church order, aroused opposition from the authorities. He was dismissed from his post and retired to Geneva. He returned in 1572. His support for Puritan petitions to Parliament led again to exile, first to Basel and Heidelberg, and then at Antwerp and Middelburg, where he was minister to the English merchants. Support at court secured his return in 1585 as master of Leicester's Hospital at Warwick. During the decisive confrontation between archbishop J. Whitgift and the Puritans, Cartwright was deprived of his post and imprisoned until 1592. Between 1595 and 1601, Cartwright was minister on the Channel Islands, where a presbyterian form of church order had been established. He returned to Warwick, where he died in 1603. Cartwright no longer participated in public literary debates over issues of church order from the 1670s, although both supporters and opponents of presbyterianism identified him as a key figure. Unlike the Separatists he always insisted that the Established Church was a true one and advised his supporters not to leave over matters of ceremonial, which he considered adiaphor…

[German Version] (c. 1600, Karyai, Thracia – after 1693, Bucharest), an Orthodox lay theologian, Grand Logothet of the Ecumenical patri…

[German Version] (Feb 18, 1559, Geneva – Jul 12, 1614, London). After study at the Geneva Academy, this son of a Huguenot pastor became professor of Greek there in 1583. He taught in Montpellier (1596–1599) but was called to Paris in 1600 by Henry IV.…

[German Version] (v. Kessel; May 18, 1533, Göttingen – Apr 9, 1613, Helmstedt) came from a Dutch family of refugees. He studied in Wittenberg and Leipzig from 1551 onward, became professor of rhetoric and princely tutor in the service of Mecklenburg in 1563, and earned his doctorate in law in Pisa in 1566. Having no strict confessional attachment, Caselius accepted an appointment as professor of phil…

[German Version] (Jan 27, 1886, Koblenz-Lützel – Mar 28, 1948, Herstelle/Weser), important specialist in Catholic liturgy who, through his mystery theology, left a lasting impression on the Liturgical Movement in Germany as well as on the renewal of Catholic theology in the 20th century. In 1905 he became a Benedictine in the abbey Maria Laach; in 1912 earned his Dr. Theol. in Rome and in 1919 Dr. Phil. in Bonn. From 1921 he was editor of the internationally and interdisciplinarily respected Jahrbuch für Liturgiewissenschaft (15 vols., 1921–1941, repr. 1973–1979, index vol. …

[German Version] (Sep 28, 1872, New Brunswick, Canada – Dec 5, 1947, Lakeland, FL), New Testament scholar and historian of early Christianity. With a doctorate from Yale (Ph.D. 1907), Case was professor of New Testament and patristics (1908–1938) and dean of the Divinity School (1933–1938) at the University of Chicago. Along with Shailer Mathews (1863–1941), Case is recognized as the …

[German Version] (Aug 27, 1780, Swansea Township, MA – Oct 19, 1855, Alderville, Upper Canada), Methodist minister of English descent, who experienced his “rebirth” in 1803. Two years later, the Methodist Epis¶ copal Church appointed him as an itinerant preacher in Upper Canada. He was ordained in 1807. Case participated in the “Canada Fire,” an experientially oriented revi…

[German Version] (Aug 24, 1513, Pitthem near Bruges – Feb 3, 1566, Cologne), humanist Catholic mediation theologian. He studied in Leuven, Cologne, and Heidelberg and, as a follower of Erasmus, worked literarily and politically, in the spirit of a …

[German Version] the daughter of King Priam of Troy and Hecuba. Homer and Ibycus extol her beauty. Wishing to marry her, Othryoneus fought on the side of Troy but was slain (Hom. Il. 13.363–393). Like her twin brother Helenus, she was endowed with oracular powers, which she received from Apollo, whose prophet and priestess she became – a relationship with erotic connotations (albeit often mentioned in the negative). Anticleides (140; FGH 2, B1, frag. 17), however, records that brother and sister were endow…

[German Version] (360, Dobruja – 430/435, Marseille). Born in a Christian home, Cassian undertook a pilgrimage to Palestine and Egypt, where for more than a decade he was a student of the monastic fathers. During the Origenistic controversies he left Egypt c. 399/400, went to Constantinople and John Chrysostom, went to Rome after the latter's banishment, and ultimately settled in southern Gaul, where in 415 he founded a monastery and a convent.…

[German Version] (full name: Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus; senator) (c. 485 – c. 588) was born ¶ in Squillace (Calabria). His life can be divided into two parts. The first was characterized by lively political involvemen…

[German Version] (Jul 28, 1874, Breslau – Apr 13, 1945, New York), German philosopher and a student of the Marburg Neo-Kantians H. Cohen and P. Natorp (Neo-Kantianism). In 1919, he accepted an appointment as professor at the newly founded University of Hamburg, but emigrated in March 1993 (England, Sweden). As a Swedish citizen, he was visiting professor at Yale and New York from 1941 onward. Cassirer's oeuvre is dedicated to the ideals of humanism and the…

[German Version] (Dec 24, 1931, São Paulo, Brazil, or Dec 25, 1925, Cajamarca, Peru – Apr 27, 1998, Westwood, CA), cultural anthropologist, writer, and father of the American New Age movement – em…

[German Version] I. India – II. Caste and Christianity (in History) – III. Missiology I. India “Caste” (from Port. casta, “pure, unadulterated, chaste”) is the term used to denote Indian social groups based on criteria of consanguinity and, in part, fictional genealogy; they are distinguished by common occupations, names, and traditions, especially norms governing marriage and diet (Dietary laws: VIII). Traditional Hindu society adopts a hierarchic model of four classes (Skt. varṇa, often mislabeled “castes”) (Hinduism: III, 2). Castes are …

[German Version] (Châteillon; 1515, Saint-Martin-du-Fresne, Savoy – Dec 29, 1563, Basel). After studying at Lyon, c. 1540 Castellio came to Strasbourg, where he made friends with Calvin. In 1540 the Reformer found him an appointment in Geneva as headmaster of the Collège de la Rive, where he wrote the Dialogi sacri, a textbook for Latin instruction, and began work on a new translation of the Bible into Latin and French. Differences over Christ's descent into hell and the Song of Songs led to con…

[German Version] Fortresses

[German Version] (Saint's day: Feb 13). According to a vita from the High Middle Ages, Castor came…

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[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Judaism – III. Christianity – IV. Islam I. Religious Studies Casuistry (from Lat. casus, “case”) is a method of practical and dialectical reasoning and argumentation in which the formulation of a specific case that is perceived to be problematic is followed by the application of general moral principles, norms, and guidelines to the specific case at hand. The purpose of this method is to arrive, under changed and changing circumstan…

[German Version] – Greek κατάβασις (εἰς ῾Αιδου)/ katábasis ( eís Háidou), Lat. descensus/descensio ( ad inferos), descent (to the underworld; cf. also Descent into hell) – is the classical term for elements of certain myths, especially involving Odysseus (not explained in Hom Od. 11, ¶ but cf. 23.252: κατέβην/ katébēn) and Aeneas (Verg. Aen. 6; Hereafter, Concepts of the), as well as Orpheus, Heracles, and Theseus. It is also an element of some divination rituals (oracle of Trophonius: Pausanias 9.39). The…

[German Version] I. Jewish Catacombs – II. Christian Catacombs I. Jewish Catacombs 1. In the Second Temple period, Jerusalem was surrounded by an important necropolis composed of both monumental tombs with decorated facades and simple graves; most of them lay to the east, south and north of the city, in the Qidron valley, between the Temple Mount and the Mount of Olives. The earliest is the tomb of the “Bene Chesir,” attributed to the 1st century bce. A Hebrew inscription on the architrave identifies the memorial as “tomb and nefesh…

[German Version] also called tumba (tomb), is a mock coffin shrouded in black cloth that was set up in the church nave in front of the sanctuary. This was done at burial masses at which the coffin containing the body could not be brought into the church. At the end of the mass, farewell was bidden to the deceased through incensing and the sprinkling of the catafalque with holy water (absolution). Since the publication of the post-Vatican II burial rite, the farewell ceremony for the deceased may only be performed in the presence of the actual body.…

[German Version] I. History – II. Practical Theology – III. Latin America, Asia, Africa I. History 1. Early Church. The verb κατήχειν/ katḗchein originally denoted the oral transmission of a message in the sense of “tell, inform.” In Paul and early Christian literature it usually means “teach, instruct” (Gal 6:6; Lat. catechizare); in contrast to glossolalia, it refers to intelligible speech (1 Cor 14:19; Luke 1:4) such as instruction in the law (Rom 2:18) or in the teaching (“the way”) of the Lord (Acts 18:25). In t…

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