Religion Past and Present
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Subject: Religious Studies
Edited by: Hans Dieter Betz, Don S. Browning†, Bernd Janowski and Eberhard Jüngel
Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
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Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Camerarius, Joachim
(181 words)
[German Version] (Apr 12, 1500, Bamberg – Apr 17, 1574, Leipzig) began studies in Leipzig in 1512, in Erfurt in 1518 (M.A. 1521), and in Wittenberg in 1521, where he enjoyed a close friendship with Melanchthon. He became professor of rhetoric in 1522, although he often spent long periods in Bamberg and traveling, in 1524 with Melanchthon to Bretten and as Luther's emissary to Erasmus in Basel. In 1525 he became professor of Greek in Wittenberg, in 1526 rector in …
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Religion Past and Present
Cameron, John
(283 words)
[German Version] (1579, Glasgow – Nov 27, 1625, Montauban) went to France around 1600 and was initially active as a teacher in the vicinity of Humaniora. After studying in Paris, Geneva, and Heidelberg, he became pastor in Bordeaux in 1608, professor of theology at the Protestant academy in Saumur in 1618 and in Montauban in 1624. In the disputes with the Arminians, Cameron defended the Calvinist doctrine of predestination, but modified it by emphasizing …
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Religion Past and Present
Cameroon
(618 words)
[German Version] The name “Cameroon” derives from the Portuguese name of the Wouri River estuary in Douala: Rio dos Camarões, “River of Prawns.” In 1884 the German colonial administration extended the name to the entire land, whose boundaries were fixed in 1910/1911. Cameroon covers an area of 475,441 km2. It comprises rainy and semi-arid tropical regions, including one of the wettest regions of the world around Mount Cameroon, an active volcano (4095 m.). Cameroon is a potpourri of 120 ethnic groups speaking 236 differen…
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Religion Past and Present
Camillians
(208 words)
[German Version] (
Clerici regulares ministrantes infirmis, MI;
Ordo Sancti Camilli, OSC). The Camillians are the only clerical order of the Catholic Church devoted entirely to charitable service. The order was founded in Rome in 1582 by Camillo de Lellis (1550–1614) to renew the ministry of service to the sick (fourth vow: to serve the sick, regardless of mortal danger – hence grave losses during epidemics of the plague and cholera). After the demise of the Order of Servants o…
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Religion Past and Present
Camisards
(559 words)
[German Version] The Camisards were Protestants in southern France who, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1686 (Huguenots), secretly formed armed bands in the Cévennes region, the “desert,” to fight for the freedom and rights of their suppressed church in the face of harsh persecution. The term “Camisard” probably derives from the
camisia (“shirt”) worn over their clothing during night raids, which were therefore called
camisades. The movement, which at times appeared fanatical, survived until 1711; especially when its followers were being pu…
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Religion Past and Present
Campanella, Tommaso
(456 words)
[German Version] (Sep 5, 1568, Stilo, Calabria – May 1, 1639, Paris) attempted to reconcile the Renaissance philosophy of nature with a radical reform of science and society. Born in a small village in southern Italy, he entered the Dominican order as a young man. Campanella read medical works and books on natural science, works of Plato and of Neoplatonism, but the great encounter of his youth was with Bernardino Telesio's natural philosophy. Accor…
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Religion Past and Present
Campanus, Johannes
(159 words)
[German Version] (c. 1500, Maaseik – after 1574). After studying at Cologne and a stay in the duchy of Jülich, Campanus came to Wittenberg c. 1527/1528. His exclusion from the debate at the Colloquy of Marburg (Disputations, Religious: I) marked the beginning of his conflict with the Wittenberg Reformers, which was intensified in 1530 when he disputed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. He soon returned to Jülich, where a warrant for his arrest (at first not executed) was issued in 1532. His
Göttlicher und Heiliger Schrift … Restitution (1532) expounded his anti-trinitarian th…
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Religion Past and Present
Campbell, Alexander
(294 words)
[German Version] (Sep 12, 1788, Near Ballymena, Ireland – Mar 4, 1866, Bethany, WV) was one of the founders of the 19th-century American Restoration Movement that gave birth to the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Christian Church/Churches of Christ (Independent), and the Churches of Christ. While studying at the University of Glasgow, Campbell had stood under the influence of the primitivist teachings of J. and R. Haldane. He arrived in Virginia in 1808 and found that his…
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Religion Past and Present
Campbell, Donald T.
(243 words)
[German Version] (Nov 20, 1916, Grass Lake, MI – May 5, 1996, Bethlehem, PA) was professor of psychology at Northwestern University (1953–1979), Syracuse University (1979–1982), and Lehigh University (1982–1996); he was president of the American Psychological Association in 1975/1976. He won international recognition for his work in social and experimental psychology, especially in the fields of methodology and the philosophy of the social sciences. He made funda…
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Religion Past and Present
Campbell, John McLeod
(178 words)
[German Version] (May 4, 1800, Kilninver – Feb 7, 1872, Roseneath, Scotland). The son of an Argyll¶ shire clerical family, Campbell was educated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. In 1821 he obtained a license to preach and was presented to the parish of Rhu in 1825, where he sought to nurture a well-founded and properly orientated piety among his congregation. Initial difficulties were diagnosed by him as the result of a legalistic attitude stemming from Reformed theology …
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Religion Past and Present
Campeggio
(324 words)
[German Version]
1. Lorenzo (1474, Milan – Jul 20, 1539, Rome) became professor of law at Bologna in 1500, was ordained priest in 1511, made bishop in 1512 and cardinal in 1517. He achieved fame through his positions as nuncio: in 1511, Julius II sent him to Emperor Maximilian I; Leo X gave him the same assignment (1513–1517). Campeggio established cordial relations with Maximilian and Charles V, as well as with Henry VIII of England. In 1524/1525, Clement VII com…
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Religion Past and Present
Campe, Joachim Heinrich
(291 words)
[German Version] (Jun 29, 1746, Deensen/Braunschweig – Oct 22, 1818, Braunschweig). Having received instruction from a private tutor and subsequently attended the local village school as well as the monastery school in Holzminden, Campe began studying Protestant theology at Helmstedt and Halle in 1765. After the completion of his studies, he found employment as a preacher in Potsdam, but also as a tutor in the household of the chamberlain Georg v. Humboldt, whose two so…
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Religion Past and Present
Campello, Enrico di
(329 words)
[German Version] (Nov 15, 1831, Spoleto – Jul 2, 1903, Rome) was the most important proponent of Old Catholicism (Old Catholics) in Italy. Count Campello, a member of the
Academia dei Nobili who became a priest in 1855 and canon of St. Peter's in 1868, inclined toward Italian nationalism. After 1870 he founded a secret society to demand the popular election of the pope and the bishops. After the liberal press discovered the plan, in 1881 he declared (in the American Methodist Church) a breach with the Vatican and in 1882 established the “Italian Catholic Church” (known ¶ after 1899 as the Ca…
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Religion Past and Present
Campenhausen, Hans von
(243 words)
[German Version] (Dec 16, 1903 [Old Style, Dec 3, 1903], Rosenbeck, Livonia – Jan 6, 1989, Heidelberg), doctor of theology, Heidelberg 1926; 5 honorary doctorates in theology;
Privatdozent in church history, Marburg, 1928; Göttingen 1930; 1935 temporary professorship in Gießen; 1936 appointed professor in Heidelberg; appointment withdrawn in 1937 on political grounds; 1938
Privatdozent in Greifswald; 1940 temporary professorship in Vienna; ordinary professor in Heidelberg from 1946. With the exception of A. v. Harnack, whose theory …
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Religion Past and Present
Camphuysen, Dirck Raphaelszoon
(135 words)
[German Version] (1586, Gorinchem – Jul 19, 1627, Dokkum) was deposed as Reformed pastor because of his Arminian views (1619) and banished (1620). He led a beggarly existence, settling nowhere. Inclined toward the newly founded Remonstrantist church (Arminians), he finally felt at home with the Rijnsburger Collegiants. Theologically, he had sympathies with Socinians, and he translated some of F. Sozzini's works into Dutch. He refused a professorship in Raków in 1625. His heartfelt
Stichtelycke Rymen (1624, 121658), which revolve around the theme of suffering, wer…
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Religion Past and Present
Campion, Edmund, Saint
(210 words)
[German Version] (Jan 25, 1539/1540, London – Dec 1, 1581, Tyburn), protomartyr of the English Province of the Jesuits. Originally an Anglican, Campion became Junior Fellow at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1557. He moved to Dublin in 1570 and wrote his
History of Ireland (1571). Having converted to Catholicism following a crisis of faith, he fled to the University of Douai in Flanders and then to Rome, joined the Austrian Province of the Jesuits, studied in Prague and Brno/Brünn (Moravia), and was ordained priest in 1578. I…
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Religion Past and Present
Camus, Albert
(383 words)
[German Version] (Nov 7, 1913, Mondovi, Algeria – 4 Jan, 1960, in a car accident in Petit-Villeblevin, France) was deeply involved as a journalist and resistance fighter in the conflicts of his age – the Spanish Civil War, the French resistance, the Algerian War of Indepen¶ dence, Soviet occupations, etc. He was honored with the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957. His most important works include short stories (
L'envers et l'endroit, 1937;
L'été, 1954;
L'exile et le royaume, 1957), novels (
L'étranger, 1942;
La peste, 1947), plays (
Caligula, 1945;
Les justes, 1949), philosophi…
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Religion Past and Present
Cana
(123 words)
[German Version] The village (κώμη/
kōmē, Jos.
Vita LXIV, 206) of Κανά (τῆς Γαλιλαίας)/
Kaná (
tēs Galilaías; from Heb. קָנֶה/
qāneh, “reed”?) is to be identified with the site of Ḫirbet Qana and lies on the northern slope of the Bet Netofa Valley. According to Josh 19:28, Cana belonged to the tribe of Asher (Tribes of Israel). The New Testament mentions it only in John 2:1, 11; 4:46; 21:2, while Jewish sources locate the priestly family of Eliashib in Cana. Excavations have uncove…
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Religion Past and Present
Canaan
(10 words)
[German Version] Palestina, Syria, Israel and Canaan
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Religion Past and Present
Canada
(1,422 words)
[German Version] After Russia, Canada is the largest country in the world, but one of the most sparsely populated. It covers almost 40% of the land area of North America (9, 970, 610 km2). It borders the Arctic Sea to the north, the Atlantic to the east, twelve states of the USA to the south, and Alaska and the Pacific to the west. Its capital is Ottawa. The greatest population density and the largest cities are along the coast and the border with the USA, where 90% of the Canadian population live. In 2001 it had approx. 30 million inhabitants. Canadian society is multicultural, comprising gro…
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Religion Past and Present
Canadian Conference of Bishops
(209 words)
[German Version] Founded in 1943 as the Canadian Catholic Conference (renamed the Canadian Conference of Bishops [CCB] in 1977), the CCB is a voluntary association of Canadian bishops for the coordination of their responses to social issues and of internal administrative measures within the church. In the years following Vatican II, the CCC became a truly nation-wide collegial body and played a crucial role in the implementation of the council's liturgical reforms, in the coordination of episcopal reactions to Pope Paul VI's
Humanae Vita encyclical on birth control (cf. …
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Religion Past and Present
Canadian Council of Churches
(178 words)
[German Version] The Canadian Council of Churches, the successor organization to the Social Service Council of Canada (SSCC; est. 1914), was founded in 1944 as an umbrella organization for the various social services of the Methodist, Presbyterian, and Anglican churches, and maintained close ties to various women's organizations. Initially concentrating on moral issues such as abstinence, prostitution, and the censorship of pornographic literature, the focus of the SSCC…
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Religion Past and Present
Canadian Missions
(211 words)
[German Version] Under French rule, only Roman Catholic missionaries were permitted, including the Jesuits, several of whom suffered martyrdom in 1649/1650. In the 19th century, Anglicans of the Church Missionary Society competed with Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Grey Nuns (Grey Brothers and Sisters) for the souls of Native American Indians (II) and Inuit. Among the Protestant churches, the Methodists were the most active, both in Ontario and in northern…
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Religion Past and Present
Candle
(292 words)
[German Version] Candles have been used in Christian liturgy for centuries. To distinguish Christianity from other religions, the cultic use of candles was originally rejected, but candles soon became a standard element of Christian worship even in the Early Church. From the perspective of religious history, candles symbolize the contrast of light and darkness. Their biblical interpretation derives from John 8:12 (Jesus Christ as the “light of the world”). The c…
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Religion Past and Present
Candles, Blessing of
(169 words)
[German Version] Despite their multi-faceted use in liturgy and popular piety, candles were not originally blessed or “consecrated.” The Easter candle first attested in 384 for Piacenza (PL 30, 182f.) consitutes an exception. Evening light blessings attested since the 2nd century survive in its “consecration.” Only since the 10th century have prayers for the blessing of candles appeared, which were used in processions, first and foremost in the procession …
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Religion Past and Present
Candlestick/Candelabrum
(1,161 words)
[German Version] I. Hebrew Bible and Judaism – II. Christianity
I. Hebrew Bible and Judaism According to 1 Kgs 7:49, the furnishings of the First Temple (II) included, in addition to gold and silver candlesticks that belonged the temple treasury but were not otherwise used (1 Chr 28:12, 18; Jer 52:19), “ten candlesticks of pure gold” of which five stood respectively on each side of the holy of holies. Following rabbinic tradition (
b. Men. 28b), the menorah, i.e. the seven-branched (or seven-armed) candelabrum that Moses ¶ had made (Exod 25:31; 37:17) after being shown a mo…
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Religion Past and Present
Candomblé
(249 words)
[German Version] represents an Afro-Brazilian mixed religion from African and Christian elements; it is based on the Bantu word
candombe (= percussion instrument). Other mixed forms appear under the names Umbanda, Macumba, Catimbó, and Batuque. The center of Candomblé continues to be Salvador da Bahia. The roots of Candomblé trace back principally to West African Yoruba culture which prevailed over Bantu cultures in Brazil. Today, between 20% and 30% of the population sta…
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Religion Past and Present
Canisius, Peter (Saint)
(398 words)
[German Version] (Peter Kanis until c. 1547; May 8, 1521, Nijmegen – Dec 21, 1597, Fribourg, ¶ Switzerland) contributed to the renewal of the Catholic Church after the Reformation. Residing in Cologne from 1535 onward, he became the first German Jesuit in 1543. He turned to Charles V of Germany for support against the reforming attempt of the archbishop of Cologne (Hermann of Wied). After a brief stay at the Council of Trent and the continuation of his Jesuit training in Rome …
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Religion Past and Present
Cankov, Stefan
(234 words)
[German Version] (Zankow; Jul 4, 1881, Gorna Oryakhovitsa – Mar 20, 1965, Sofia). A Bulgarian Orthodox theologian, Cankov earned his Dr. theol. in Chernivtsi (Czernowitz) in 1905, his Dr. jur. in Zürich in 1918, ¶ and received honorary doctorates from Athens (1936), Oxford (1937), Berlin (1940), Sofia (1953), and Budapest (1955). He was professor of canon and matrimonial law and of Christian sociology from 1923 to 1960, rector of the University of Sofia from 1940 to 1941, as well as a member of the Bul…
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Religion Past and Present
Cano, Melchior
(283 words)
[German Version] (1509, Tarancón or Pastrana – Sep 30, 1560, Toledo), a Dominican friar (1523) and disciple of Francisco de Vitoria. He lectured as professor in Valadolid, Alcala, and Salamanca, and was conciliar theologian at Trent in 1551/1552 (Trent, Council of). His chief work,
De locis theologicis libri duodecim (publ. posthumously in 1563; unfinished), exerted a lasting influence on Catholic epistemology and methodology on account of its thorough theological treatment of the subject matter. Cano's philosophical orie…
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Religion Past and Present
Canon
(4,367 words)
[German Version] I. History of Religion – II. Church History – III. Fundamental Theology – IV. Orthodox Law – V. Eastern Poetry – VI. Islam – VII. Buddhism – VIII. Taoism
I. History of Religion The canon can be defined as a complex process of selection of documents regarded as authoritative; from the totality of the extant written tradition, documents are set apart according to certain criteria as holy or inspired (Inspiration/Theopneustia). Although the concept of the canon as a normative collection…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonesses Regular
(294 words)
[German Version] (from Lat.
canonicae) first appeared in the Greek church in the 4th century, in the West in the 8th. The term derives from the
canon in which these women were registered. Initially, the title was given to all women leading a religious life but not bound by monastic vows. The Aachen
Institutiones of 816 defined canonesses as a community under abbatial supervision and following certain rules, albeit enjoying legal and personal privileges such as possession of personal property, having their own curiae, permission to vi…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonical Age
(239 words)
[German Version] Like secular law, canon law also distinguishes different stages of life that are of significance for the legal assessment of the legal actions of a natural person, or for access to the stages of ordination and to offices. For tort responsibility, for example, a ¶ person must have completed the 16th year (c. 1323 no. 1
CIC/1983 and c. 1413 §1
CCEO). From this age on, persons who have not yet come of age can also function as godparents (c. 874 §1 no. 2
CIC/1983 and c. 685 §2
CCEO). Admission to the novitiate requires a person to be 17 years old (c. 643 §1 no. 1
CIC/1983 and cc. 450 no. 4…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonical Approach
(966 words)
[German Version] I. Old Testament – II. New Testament
I. Old Testament “Canonical approach” refers to a primarily synchronic interpretation of the canonized final text of the Bible in the context of all scriptures of the biblical canon (Bible: II, 2; III, 2), which, in view of the various confessional forms of the canon, can and will claim validity only within the boundaries of a faith community. It contrasts with a historical-critical exegesis oriented toward the literary-hi…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonical Lists
(349 words)
[German Version] are lists of the biblical books of the Old Testament and New Testament (cf. Bible II, 2; III, 2) compiled in the Early Church either by individuals or by synods. They possessed authoritative character, though in practice this was not always evident. The earliest canonical indices are the Muratorian Fragment (see also Canon) from Rome (c. 200) and the index of the Codex Claromontanus (3rd cent.). 1 and 2 Thessalonians along with Philemon are inadvertently omitted here, as is Hebrews, while
Barnabas, the
Shepherd of Hermas, the
Acts of Paul, and the
Apocalypse of Peter are i…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonical Provision
(185 words)
[German Version] is a technical term in Catholic canon law for all types of sovereign grants through individual administrative decrees (c. 48
CIC/1983; c. 1510 § 2, 1
CCEO; administration: IV, 3). More precisely, it involves the grant of legal capacity (Juridical persons: cc. 114 § 1; 116 § 2
CIC/1983; public Voluntary associations [II, 1.b]: c. 313
CIC/1983), of authorities (Delegation: cc. 131 § 1; 133; 137
CIC/1983; the authority to confirm and hear confession: cc. 882; 969
CIC/1983; delegation of the authority to perform marriages: c. 1111
CIC/1983), of names and titles (cf. cc.…
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Religion Past and Present
Canonization
(582 words)
[German Version] I. Catholic Church – II. Orthodox Churches (Latin
canonisatio, Greek ᾽Αν̆ακῆρυξις/
anakḗryxis, “public proclamation”) refers to the placement in the list (canon) of saints (Saints/Veneration of saints). Such placement includes remembrance in worship, a vita, an icon (Icons; Saints, icons and attributes), the possibility of having an altar or church dedicated to the saint (Consecration/Ordination/Dedication), and the appropriation of the saint's name at ba…
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Religion Past and Present
Canon Law/Church Law
(11,049 words)
[German Version] I. History – II. The Present – III. Orthodox Church – IV. The Study of Canon Law and Church Law – V. Practical Theology – VI. Oriental Orthodox Canon Law
I. History
1. Early Church. The church has had laws ever since Christians recognized the need for a generally recognized authority to regulate the uncertainties, problems, and controversies involving church discipline brought about by the rapid expansion of Christianity. After the death of the initial authority figures (e.g. the fou…
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Religion Past and Present
Canons/Canon Collections
(812 words)
[German Version] Into the 4th century, synods did not call their decisions “canon” or “regula.” In the Greek East, they used the term
horos as the older term for ecclesiastical decisions (Ankyra, cc. 6, 19,
et passim). In the Latin language sphere, designations including
placita, statuta, instituta, decreta, sententiae were drawn from Roman legal language as the specific terminology applicable in such cases. The designation as
canons appeared for the first time at the Synod of Antioch c. 330 (cc. 19 etc.) and quickly established itself in the East (Bas.
Ep. 188, cc. 4, 10). Th…
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Religion Past and Present
Canons Regular
(334 words)
[German Version] Members of a chapter (Cathedral chapter) that exists to celebrate liturgical worship in cathedral and college churches under the leadership of the bishop or an archipresbyter. The term, attested in France since 535, derives from inclusion in the list, called the canon, of those clergy of a church entitled to maintenance or obligated to live according to the canons. A specific church regulation, offered in 755 by Chrodegang of Metz on the local, and in 816 by the
Insitutiones Aquisgranenses on the general level, distinguishes canons from monasticism. I…
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Religion Past and Present
Canons Regular of St. Augustine
(603 words)
[German Version] The ideal of a communal life in discipleship to Christ also moved the early medieval clergy of episcopal cities to the
vita communis on the example of Augustine. However, only the Gregorian Reform movement (Gregory VII) produced the adoption of strict monastic forms of life for ¶ the clergy, too, so that, alongside the secular collegiate chapters who lived according to the 816 Rule of Aachen, communities of clergy arose who followed the so-called Augustinian Rule (
canonici regulares; Augustine, Rule of). Their way of life between secular clergy and …
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Religion Past and Present
Canstein, Karl Hildebrand von
(279 words)
[German Version] (Baron; Aug 4, 1667, Lindenberg in Mark Brandenburg – Aug 19, 1719, Berlin). The son of the Prussian
Kammerpräsident Raban v. Canstein, Canstein studied law in Frankfurt an der Oder, traveled throughout Europe, and took part in a military campaign. While suffering from an illness, he vowed to devote the rest of his life to the service of God, something he accomplished without ever holding public office. On returning to Berlin, he made the acquaintance of P.J. Spen…
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Religion Past and Present
Cantata
(1,082 words)
[German Version] The term cantata now refers especially to the polyphonic church music with multiple movements as specified by J.S. Bach and whose text is based on ¶ the proprium of the Sundays and festival days of the church year. In contrast to the sonata (a “sounding” instrumental piece), the cantata is a choral piece that developed in the 17th century largely in Italy as secular music. Textually, non-strophic, so-called madrigal poetry is used for arias and recitatives. In Germany, ca…
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Religion Past and Present
Canterbury
(535 words)
[German Version] Seat of a bishopric in the county of Kent, England. Situated at an important road junction during the Roman period, Canterbury became the main settlement of the Cantiani in the first century ce and shows evidence of Christianization from the beginning of the 4th century. The conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons dealt a severe blow to the development of the city. King Ethelbert made it the capital of the kingdom of Kent, while the Roman monk Augustine of Canterbury, a missionary dispatched by Pop…
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Religion Past and Present
Canticle
(435 words)
[German Version] (from Lat.
canticulum, “little song”): poetic prayer or song from the Bible but outside the Psalter. Of the canticles which have been put to liturgical use, most are from the OT (including apocryphal/deuterocanonical literature), for example “Benedicite, omnia opera domini,” or “The Song of Creation,” which comes from the prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace (Daniel, Additions to). Examples of NT canticles are the three from the Gospel of Luke (
Magnificat , 1:46–55,
Benedictus , 1:68–79,
Nunc dimittis , 2:29–32). Canticles in their …
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Religion Past and Present
Cantor
(317 words)
[German Version] From the 4th century, the term cantor (Lat.) refers to a singer, chanter, or leader of church music; from the 10th century it refers also to an office held by a member of the cathedral chapter. In the traditional, pre-reformation understanding, the cantor was distinguished from the trained
musicus; this distinction survived well into the 18th century. The Protestant image of the leader of a city Kantorei following the model of Johann Walter in Torgau (1525) combined this post with the duties of an ac…
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Religion Past and Present