Religion Past and Present
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Subject: Religious Studies
Edited by: Hans Dieter Betz, Don S. Browning†, Bernd Janowski and Eberhard Jüngel
Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
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Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Faber, Peter
(317 words)
[German Version] (Petrus; Pierre Favre/Lefèvre; Apr 13, 1506, Villaret, Savoy, France – Aug 1, 1546, Rome). Faber is viewed as the first Jesuit priest. The son of a farmer, he studied from 1525 in Paris, where in 1529 he became acquainted with Ignatius of Loyola and F. Xavier, with whom he roomed. As the only priest among the friends of Ignatius, in 1534 he conducted that memorable mass on Montmartre at which the later founding fathers of the Jesuit Order (Jesuits; alongside Ignatius and Xavier al…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabian
(167 words)
[German Version] Fabian, bishop of Rome, 236–250. The Roman bishop Antherus died in 236 during the brief persecution under Emperor Maximinus Thrax (235–38). Fabian succeeded him by means of an “election by inspiration.” During the subsequent period of peace, Fabian reorganized the Roman Church, dividing Rome into seven administrative districts subject to seven deacons. Fabian was especially active in taking care of the ceme-¶ teries. The custom of recording the day of ordination of Roman bishops, the length of their time in office, and the dates of their dea…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabiola
(196 words)
[German Version] (died c. 400 ce), Roman aristocrat. Fabiola belonged to a circle of noblewomen who during the second half of the 4th century ce advocated the ascetic life, rejected their traditional role in society, and used their inherited wealth for charitable purposes. Our acquaintance with her life comes from the writings of Jerome (esp. his obituary for her in Jer.
Ep. 77). After her first marriage ended in divorce and her second husband died, she dedicated herself to an ascetic life, sold her possessions, supported clergymen, virgins, and monks, an…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabricius, Johann
(167 words)
[German Version] (Feb 11, 1644, Altdorf – Jan 29, 1729, Helmstedt). While studying in Helmstedt and Altdorf, Fabricius was influenced by students of G. Calixtus. After several years of an educational tour, he became a legation preacher in Venice, then in 1677 professor of theology in Altdorf and in 1697 in Helmstedt. In 1701 he was appointed abbot of Königslutter. In his most important work,
Consideratio, he advocated an irenic understanding of hermeneutics (V, 2) which might minimize denominational differences. By means of expert opinions and negotiations wi…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabricius, Johann Albert
(169 words)
[German Version] (Nov 11, 1668, Leipzig – Apr 30, 1736, Hamburg). Fabricius, who studied medicine and then theology in Leipzig, worked on the
Acta Eruditorum (1682), was from 1693 a librarian with J. F.Mayer in Hamburg, then from 1699 until his death was professor of morality and rhetoric at the Hamburg grammar school. In 1699 he earned his Dr.theol.; he was a member of the “German-practicing” and “Patriotic” Societies. The focus of his voluminous work is the history of literature. His histories of Greek, Roman, and me…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabricius, Johann Philipp
(156 words)
[German Version] (Jan 22, 1711, Kleeberg – Jan 23, 1791, Chennai, India), missionary and the most important translator of the Danish-Halle Mission in Tranquebar. Upon reading the
Hallesche Berichte [Halle reports], Fabricius, who had just finished his examinations in jurisprudence, was prompted to study theology in Halle and to go to India (1740). The enduring contribution of his 50 years in Madras (today: Chennai) (overshadowed from 1778 onwards by temporary dismissal and imprisonment for bankruptcy) was his edition of th…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabri, Friedrich Gotthardt Karl Ernst
(278 words)
[German Version] (Jun 12, 1824, Schweinfurt – Jul 18, 1891, Würzburg), Protestant theologian, social and colonial politician. Fabri, who came from a pastor's family in Franconia, was the city vicar in Würzburg from 1848 and then in 1851 took over a patronate parish near Kissingen. In 1857 he was appointed chief inspector of the Rhenish Mission, ¶ though in 1884 he was forced to leave the Barmen Mission house because of his activities involving colonial propaganda. In 1889 he was appointed honorary professor in the faculty of theology at the University…
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Religion Past and Present
Fabri, Johann
(307 words)
[German Version] (Faber; 1478, Leutkirch im Allgäu – Aug 21, 1541, Vienna). Although his birth name was Heigerlein (or Heugerlein), in 1525 as the son of a smith he followed humanistic custom by adding the name Faber or (filius) Fabri. He earned his Doctor of Laws in Freiburg im Breisgau in 1510/11, was an admirer of Erasmus and an advocate of inner church reform, albeit of reform from the top down and only in stages. In 1513 he became the highest episcopal official in Basel and in 1514 a priest i…
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Religion Past and Present
Faculties and Schools of Theology
(3,782 words)
[German Version] I. Church History – II. Legal Considerations
I. Church History
1. Europe Since their inception in the High Middle Ages, faculties of theology have been an integral if not absolutely necessary component of European universities (cf. the medical school in Salerno or the law school of Bologna). At universities modeled after the one in Paris, theology, law, and medicine constituted the three upper faculties. From the outset, state and ecclesiastical interests overlapped in faculties of theology…
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Religion Past and Present
Facundus of Hermiane
(171 words)
[German Version] Facundus of Hermiane, North African bishop (prior to 547/58 till 570) and scholarly theologian. With his work
Pro defensione trium capitulorum (546–548; CPL 866), Facundus became as it were the voice of the Latin West and leader of the opposition to the condemnation of the Three Chapters (Three Chapters Controversy) by Emperor Justinian, albeit without success. This work is important for transmitting works of Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodoret of Cyrrhus that would otherwise have been lost, for con…
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Religion Past and Present
Fagius, Paul
(181 words)
[German Version] (1504, Rheinzabern – Nov 13, 1549, Cambridge). Fagius studied from 1515 in Heidelberg (Heidelberg, University of; 1522, M.A. degree), ¶ where he became acquainted with Luther in 1518. In 1522 he became a teacher in Strasbourg. He learned Hebrew from W. Capito. In 1527 he became a school rector in Isny, returning to Strasbourg in 1535, where he worked with M. Bucer and studied theology. In 1537–1542 he was a preacher in Isny, where he improved his Hebrew with Elijah Levita and ran a Hebrew printing co…
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Religion Past and Present
Fairfax, John
(174 words)
[German Version] (baptized on Oct 24, 1805, Warwick, England – Jun 16, 1877, Sydney, Australia). Fairfax was a newspaper publisher and industrialist, a Congregationalist (Congregationalism), and a philanthropist. After emigrating to Sydney in 1838, Fairfax became Australia's premier newspaper baron and the director of many business ventures, simultaneously embodying both evangelical engagement for Christ and the changes that were taking place in society at the time. A lifelong deacon in the Congre…
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Religion Past and Present
Fairy Tales
(1,964 words)
[German Version] I. Literary History – II. Religious History – III. In Religious Education
I. Literary History The fairy tale (the diminutive German term
Märchen derives from MHG
maere, “tidings,” “news,” “story, narrative”; the English term has been variously derived from ME
faie, fei< MF
feie, fee< Lat.
fata; a genre term since the 16th cent.) as a basic genre of literary narrative is ¶ characterized by elements of the fantastic, miraculous, and supernatural. Neither the authors nor the circumstances of origin of fairy tales are known; although over the …
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Religion Past and Present
Faith
(25,125 words)
[German Version] I. Terminology – II. Old Testament – III. New Testament – IV. Systematic Theology – V. Practical Theology – VI. Judaism – VII. Islam
I. Terminology
1. Religious Studies
a. As an
emic linguistic term, “faith” is found not only in the context of the Christian West (cf.
fides, foi, Glaube, etc.), but also in other religious traditions. The Sanskrit term
śraddhā (cf. Pāli
saddhā; Avestan
zrazdā-) seems to represent an Indo-European etymological pendant to Lat.
credo, as demonstrated by the possible reconstruction of Indo-Germanic *
k'red-dhē-, “set one's heart o…
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Religion Past and Present
Faith and Knowledge
(1,881 words)
[German Version] I. Fundamental Theology – II. Philosophy of Religion
I. Fundamental Theology The relationship between faith and knowledge became a classic theme within the Christian cultural sphere as the terms πίστις/
pístis and πιστεύειν/
pisteúein became widespread as a result of the Christian missionary practice of adopting equivalents from foreign languages, as the noun itself became synonymous with “being a Christian” and then with religion as such, and as the structures of “I believe…” were secularized, becoming part of…
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Religion Past and Present
Faith and Order
(1,234 words)
[German Version] Faith and Order is one of the principal streams contributing to the modern ecumenical movement. Springing from the World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh in 1910, it followed its own course until 1948, when it joined with Life and Work to form the World Council of Churches, where its constitutional function is “to call the churches to the goal of visible unity in one faith and one eucharistic fellowship, expressed in worship and in common life in Christ, in order that the world may believe.” While practical cooperation for the purposes of evangelization may hav…
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Religion Past and Present
Faith and Works
(1,166 words)
[German Version] The determination of the relationship between faith and works lies at the heart of the doctrine of justification. According to Paul, a sinner is justified by faith “apart from works of the law” (Rom 3:28). Luther made this more specific in his translation by saying that a person is justified “
solely by faith, without the works of the law.” The substance of this exclusive understanding of faith was directed against the letter of James (cf. Jas 2:24) and against the Roman Catholic doctrine of grace. According to Luther, faith that …
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Religion Past and Present
Faithfulness, Divine and Human
(648 words)
[German Version] Faithfulness is an attribute of God (Divine attributes); it is what makes God God – truth and authenticity (Mal 3:6). In the Old Testament, trust is directed toward God's covenant (II) with humans. It describes God's faithful stance toward man (Hos 2:14–21). He is the one whose words do not pass away (Isa 40:8). The reference to God's covenant, preserved by his faithfulness, points to the trustworthiness of God's pledge which endures forever as the basis of human trust, irrespecti…
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Religion Past and Present
Falaquera, Shem Tov ben Joseph
(230 words)
[German Version] (c. 1225–1295) was one of the most productive and popular rationalist philosophers of 13th-century Spanish Judaism (Spain: II, 1). He wrote most of his works in Hebrew and was also active as a translator from Arabic. His most important ¶ works include
Sefer ha-Mevaqqesh (ET: cf.
Falaquera's Book of the Seeker, 1976), a description in rhyming prose of the search for spiritual truth among the various competing schools and factions;
Sefer ha-Nefesh (ET: cf.
Torah and Sophia, 1835), one of the earliest treatises on the human soul in Hebrew;
Iggeret ha-Vikuach (ET: cf.
Falaque…
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Religion Past and Present
Falk, Adalbert
(666 words)
[German Version] (Aug 10, 1827, Metschkau, Silesia – Jul 7, 1900, Hamm). Falk was a pastor's son and studied jurisprudence. In March 1848 he joined the Breslau civic militia and the Patriotic Society. In 1850 he passed the civil service examination and became an assistant with the Breslau state prosecutor, then in 1853 state prosecutor in Lyck (East Prussia), where from 1858 he was also a parliamentary representative of the moderate liberal party. In 1861 he became state prosecutor at the Supreme …
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Religion Past and Present
Falk, Johannes Daniel
(339 words)
[German Version] (Oct 26, 1768, Danzig – Feb 14, 1826, Weimar). Falk was the son of pietistically inclined parents (his father was a wigmaker) who long ¶ denied any formal schooling to their son, who was in fact eager to learn. He was aided in this regard by the Enlightenment-influenced Reformed pastor Samuel Ludwig Majewski (1736–1801); he then studied theology in Halle from 1791 and soon devoted himself entirely to his literary inclinations. After various journeys to seek out famous literary figures, he moved to Weimar …
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Religion Past and Present
Falsification
(7 words)
[German Version] Verification and Falsification
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Religion Past and Present
Family
(5,614 words)
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. New Testament – IV. Medieval and Modern Judaism – V. The Law – VI. History and Sociology – VII. Social Ethics – VIII. Socialization Theory – IX. Education – X. Practical Theology
I. Religious Studies The term family describes a varied network of relationships between parents, children and other persons in a social system. In ethnically shaped small-scale societies, family groups are bearers of religious rituals (Rite and Ritual) and centers of religious community. Fa…
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Religion Past and Present
Family Devotions
(503 words)
[German Version] Family devotions are the locus where personal and communal piety is observed and practiced in daily life. In the evening and morning (and at midday), the household community (House/Household) pauses and reaffirms its existence before God. Hence family devotions represent worship occasions outside regular Sunday worship (Ministerial offices, Liturgy: V) through which Christians exercise their universal priesthood in reaffirming that their time and indeed they themselves are in God'…
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Religion Past and Present
Family Education
(983 words)
[German Version] I. General – II. Family Religious Education
I. General Because of altered social conditions, on the one hand, and a new definition of gender relations, on the other, the division of labor within families practiced across generations (Women: household; Men: profession) is in the process of an epochal transformation. This change is exerting lasting influence in the area remaining as the essential content of the contemporary family: child rearing (Child/Childhood, Education). While mothers …
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Religion Past and Present
Family, Holy
(364 words)
[German Version] The veneration of the Holy Family (Mary, Joseph, infant Jesus) is attested from the time when according to legend the family's house was moved in 1291 from Nazareth to Tersatto in Dalmatia (Yugoslavia) and then in 1294 to Loreto in Italy. As early as the 11th century, a vision prompted the erection of the Holy House of the Holy Family in Walsingham, England. The development of piety during the Baroque (III) period led to an increase in such veneration from the 17th century on. In …
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Religion Past and Present
Family, Order of the Holy
(338 words)
[German Version] Influenced by the veneration of the Holy Family (Family, Holy), especially as such manifested itself in Canada, 105 communities of the Holy Family emerged between 1650 and 1986 which had mostly female members and which were active in numerous areas of the apostolate and charity. Communities include: 1. Missionaries of the Holy Family (Missionnaires de la Sainte Famille; MSF), established in 1895 by the people's missionary Jean-Baptiste Berthier (1840–1908) in Grave (Holland) to support those receiving a late calling; during the 20th century, it ¶ also engaged in m…
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Religion Past and Present
Family Planning
(555 words)
[German Version] Even though the concept and phenomenon of family planning owes its existence largely to modern technology and the invention, widespread distribution, and marketing of contraceptives and the concomitant interruption in the basic connection between sexuality and procreation, the concept of family planning as understood by Christian ethics should not be reduced to the negative connotations sometimes associated with birth control, contraception, or (at the national level) the control of population growth (esp. in ¶ the so-called “Third World”; population po…
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Religion Past and Present
Family Service
(794 words)
[German Version] A family service in the narrower sense refers to a form of worship that generally replaces the normal Sunday morning church service (including children's church), is usually prepared and organized by a team, and focuses on special needs, problems, as well as on the hopes and joys of families. After initial precursors, especially in the German Democratic Republic (Eichenberg) and not least because of problems that had arisen with the children's service there, the concept of family services emerged the late 1960s and early 1970s i…
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Religion Past and Present
Fanaticism
(371 words)
[German Version] In religious studies, fanaticism (from Lat.
fanum, “holy precinct”;
fanaticus, “functionary of non-Roman cults”;
fanari, “rage about”) originally referred to religious behavior that was viewed as deviant, exaggerated, and excessive. The term also served to refer to deviant religions during the post-Reformation period. Enthusiasts and emergent sects were referred to as
fanatici, the emotional excessiveness of their religiosity being particularly rejected. Since the 19th century, the term has been increasingly psychologized and now …
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Religion Past and Present
Fārābī
(257 words)
[German Version] (Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ben Muḥammad ben Ṭarkān ben Awzalugh al-Fārābī; c. 870, Fārāb–950, Damascus), Islamic philosopher. Fārābī combined Alexandrian Greek philosophy (6th cent.) with Christian Aristotelianism in Baghdad (10th cent.). Over 100 works are attributed to him. From Plato, Fārābī adopted his political philosophy, from Aristotle his philosophy of language, metaphysics and nature (Aristotle, Reception: II). He considered philosophy to have reached its end, while reason was ageless and un…
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Religion Past and Present
Farel, Guillaume
(374 words)
[German Version] (1489, Gap, Dauphiné – Sep 13, 1565, Neuchâtel). Farel came from a family of notaries and document archivists. His background made it possible for him to take up humanistic studies in Paris in 1509. There, he met J. Lefèvre d'Étaples around 1512, who provided his first acquaintance with the Reformation. In 1517, he attained the M.A. degree and taught grammar and philosophy at the Collège Cardinal Le Moine. His slow but radical conversion to the ideas of the Reformation reached its…
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Religion Past and Present
Farewell Discourse
(199 words)
[German Version] The farewell discourse is a literary genre found in biblical and early Jewish literature. Its characteristic feature – as distinct from the
ultima verba ¶ of illustrious men of Hellenistic-Roman literature – is the combination of a fictitious farewell scene and a speech in which a pious man from Israel's past passes on his spiritual legacy to those entrusted to him before he departs (either through death or translation). The speech contains a parenesis and a prediction for the future. The genre can be used as a framework (
T.12 Patr., As.Mos.) or as a subgenre in larger…
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Religion Past and Present
Farquhar, John Nicol
(488 words)
[German Version] (Apr 6, 1861, Aberdeen – Jul 17, 1929, Manchester), was missionary, Indologist, and professor of comparative religion in the University of Manchester, England. Farquhar was educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and the Universities of Aberdeen and Oxford, where he specialized in classical philology and philosophy (graduating in “classical moderations,” 1887, and
literae humaniores,” 1889). He was influenced by Andre Martin Fairbairn (1838–1912), principal of Mansfield College, and indirectly by the Indologists F.M. Müller and Monier …
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Religion Past and Present
Farrer, Austin
(224 words)
[German Version] (Oct 11, 1904, London – Dec 29, 1968, Oxford). Farrer studied at St. Paul's School in London and at Balliol College in Oxford, where he became a member of the Church of England. In Oxford, he prepared for the priestly office at Cuddesdon College and was ordained in 1929. Also in Oxford, he became first chaplain and tutor at St. Edmund Hall (1931–1935), then chaplain and fellow of Trinity College (1935–1960), and finally rector of Keble College (1960–1968). As an Anglo-Catholic (An…
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Religion Past and Present
Fascism
(1,633 words)
[German Version] I. The Term – II. Italian Fascism – III. Fascism and Christianity – IV. Fascism and the German Public
I. The Term Fascism, the term for a very significant aspect of 20th-century politics, has a wide range of meanings. It was initially used for Benito Mussolini's system of authoritarian-corporatist rule in Italy from 1922 to 1943/45. Even in the 1920s, nationalist protest movements (Nationalism) in other European countries were taking up the concept of fascism in order to legitimize their struggle a…
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Religion Past and Present
Fashion
(470 words)
[German Version] Fashion is a symbolic means of self-styling. Every item of the wardrobe serves to demonstrate social ¶ affiliation or delimitation. Fashion has not only aesthetic aspects but also a communicative function. Through clothing we define ourselves aesthetically by means of the quality, cut, and colors of the material, and also socially with regard to hierarchies (above, below, alongside). A person's clothing allows us to classify that person within a specific time, society, and profession. By covering …
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Religion Past and Present
Fassbinder, Rainer Werner
(198 words)
[German Version] (May 31, 1945, Bad Wörishofen–Jun 10, 1982, Munich), film director, playwright, actor, and leading figure of the New German Film during the 1970s. After drama classes (1964–1966), Fassbinder made his first short films in 1966/1967. In 1968, he established the “antitheater” in Munich, wrote dramas, and made films, partly using his own plays (
Katzelmacher, 1969). His films are often stories of the suffering of people in usually petit-bourgeois circumstances who are ruined by the coldness and lack of feeling of those around them. Fassb…
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Religion Past and Present
Fasting
(4,168 words)
[German Version] I. History of Religions – II. Old Testament – III. Christianity – IV. Ethics – V. Judaism – VI. Islam
I. History of Religions “Fasting” is a universally attested cultural technique to produce an expansion of mental and social control, power, or awareness (Asceticism) by restricting the intake of food. Many different types of and reasons for fasting can be found in the history of religions, and they are combined in various ways. Several studies have been produced with regard to individual religions …
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Religion Past and Present
Fatalism
(359 words)
[German Version] For modern fatalism, because all actions are determined in a way that can be demonstrated scientifically, alleged freedom thus merely represents “false consciousness.” Causal determinism differentiates modern fatalism from earlier assumptions of blind fate and destiny (
moíra). G.W. Leibniz still tried to delimit his own concept of fate from determinism. During the subsequent period, theories came to differentiate such notions as practical fatalistic-deterministic worldviews. Marxism, for example, views all actions a…
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Religion Past and Present
Fatality
(385 words)
[German Version] The term fatality can be defined in two ways. First, it approximates the content of the Greek understanding of “fate” (Heraclitus, Stoics). Accordingly, the human being is part of a determined course of events (Determinism) expressed in the natural laws of the world and the social order. These natural laws, which the Stoics primarily understood causally as
heimarmene, an “uninterrupted series of causes,” to which human understanding is also subject. Human fatality consists in finding oneself to be part of a largely determined world, the…
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Religion Past and Present
Fate
(2,647 words)
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Philosophy of Religion – III. Dogmatics – IV. Ethics
I. Religious Studies In every age and culture, people have felt the need to explain inescapable situations and unforeseeable events. From the perspective of cultural anthropology, however, this need does not make fate a clearly definable concept; it is instead a summary term encompassing a multiplicity of culturally divergent ideas to which individual religions often assign very different values. The concept of fat…
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Religion Past and Present
Father Deities
(2,241 words)
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Philosophy of Religion – III. Old Testament
I. Religious Studies Deities defined by emphasis on their relationship to ancestors (“fathers,” see also Ancestors, Cult of) are historically and ethnographically attested in Near Eastern and East African cultures. Usually named in the form “God of X” or “God of my/your father” or “God of my/your fathers,” they can also be known by a specific proper name. The cult of such father deities occurs – independently of a specific…
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Religion Past and Present
Father Divine
(143 words)
[German Version] (c. 1880 – Sep 10, 1965, Philadelphia), African American religious leader who founded ¶ the Peace Mission movement. Born George Baker, in 1914 he took the name Major J. Divine and started his movement in New York, from where it spread nationwide. Banquet meals, served without cost to all comers, were a central part of the movement that drew a large following during the Great Depression. The movement also provided inexpensive housing and jobs in many movement-owned businesses. Divine's followers…
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Religion Past and Present
Fatherland
(753 words)
[German Version] I. Dogmatics – II. Ethics
I. Dogmatics Since the 18th century, terms such as fatherland, love for the fatherland and patriotism have played a central role in the proclamation of all Christian churches and in the discourse of academic theologians, and have also influenced debates on Jewish self-understanding at least since M. Mendelssohn. In view of the striking methodical reticence of scholarship in church history and the history of theology, there is a deficit of historical terminolog…
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Religion Past and Present
Fatima
(135 words)
[German Version] Fatima is a Marian pilgrimage site in Portugal, where Mary appeared to the children Lucia dos Santos, Francisco Marto, and his sister Jacinta between May and October 1917. In her appearance, she called for penance, the rosary prayer, and atonement communion, and also asked that the world and Russia be consecrated to her immaculate heart (Sacred Heart of Mary). This consecration was carried out in 1942 by Pius XII and in 1981 by John Paul II. The bishop of Leiria confirmed the even…
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Religion Past and Present
Faulhaber, Michael
(210 words)
[German Version] (Mar 5, 1869, Klosterheidenfeld – Jun 12, 1952, Munich). Faulhaber was ordained priest in 1892, attained the Dr.theol. in 1895, became professor of Old Testament in Strasbourg in 1903, bishop of Speyer in 1911, also deputy field provost of the Bavarian Army in 1914, archbishop of Munich (I) and Freising in 1917, and finally cardinal in 1921. He was widely known as a brilliant speaker and powerful preacher. A resolute monarchist, he kept his distance from the Weimar Republic. Despi…
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Religion Past and Present