Religion Past and Present
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Subject: Religious Studies
Edited by: Hans Dieter Betz, Don S. Browning†, Bernd Janowski and Eberhard Jüngel
Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
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Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Hardenberg, Albert Rizaeus
(246 words)
[German Version] (c. 1510, Hardenberg, The Netherlands – May 18, 1574, Emden). Brought up among the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life in Groningen (1517–1527), Hardenberg became a monk in the Cistercian monastery of Aduard near Groningen (1528) and studied in Leuven from 1530 until receiving the Bacc.theol. Instead of a journey to Italy interrupted because of illness (1538), he earned the Dr.theol. in Mainz (1539). Arrested and charged as a Protestant in Leuven, he entered the Aduard monaste…
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Religion Past and Present
Harder, Günther
(208 words)
[German Version] (Jan 13, 1902, Groß Breesen – Sep 12, 1978, Berlin), Dr.jur., Lic.theol., Dr.theol. Harder became pastor in Fehrbellin in 1929, district and precinct pastor of the Confessing Church (Bekennende Kirche) and member of its administrative committees (1934–1945), co-founder of the Kirchliche Hochschule in Berlin (Christian College, Colleges and Universities, Christian) established on behalf of the Confessing Church (1935). He was a tutor in New Testament there (1936–1941 and 1945–1948)…
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Religion Past and Present
Harderwijk Academy
(151 words)
[German Version] The Gymnasium Illustre, in existence since 1600, was converted in 1648 by the councillors of the province of Gelderland into a college, which was in existence until 1812. It mostly remained in the shadows of the other Dutch universities where professors from Harderwijk gladly transferred to take up professorships. The theologian Bernhard Cremer (1717–1750), a proponent of the ideas of J. Cocceius, became rather well-known. The executive guarded orthodoxy, as in the trial of the su…
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Religion Past and Present
Hardouin, Jean
(188 words)
[German Version] (Dec 23, 1646, Quimper, France – Sep 3, 1729, Paris) was a leading Jesuit philologist, numismatist and historian, professor of theology (1684–1714) and librarian at the Parisian Collège Louis-le-Grand. Hardouin was controversial because of his extreme historical Pyrrhonism: on the basis of numismatic findings, he considered all ancient texts except Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Horace (
Saturae, Epistulae) and Virgil (
Georgica) to be late medieval counterfeits. The Jesuits condemned his
Opera selecta (1709). His
Opera varia (1733) also caused a sensation sinc…
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Religion Past and Present
Hardt, Hermann von der
(182 words)
[German Version] (Nov 15, 1660, Melle – Feb 28, 1746, Helmstedt), became assistant professor and member of the Pietist Collegium Philobiblicum in Leipzig in 1687 and studied in Dresden with P.J. Spener, who regarded him as his closest confidant among the young Pietists. In the fall of 1687, together with A.H. Francke, he began further exegetical studies with C.H. Sandhagen in Lüneburg. He became secretary to Duke Rudolph August of Braunschweig in 1688 and became entangled in the beginning Pietist …
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Religion Past and Present
Haring, Johann
(199 words)
[German Version] (Aug 5, 1867, Wettmannsstetten, Austria – Dec 25, 1945) studied theology in Graz and was ordained a priest in 1891. Haring received the Dr.theol. from Graz in 1896, he became lecturer (1899/1900), associate professor (1900) and professor (1906–1937) of church law at the faculty of theology in Graz, and, after 1929, an official of the diocese of Graz-Seckau and consultant for Roman congregations. Haring was one of the most important Austrian canonists of his time. His scholarly attention was primarily devoted to the law in force, from 1917 to the
CIC. His work,
Der Rechts-…
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Religion Past and Present
Harkness, Robert
(154 words)
[German Version] (Mar 2, 1880, Bendigo, Australia – May 8, 1961, London). Harkness, a talented musician, ¶ was active as a pianist and composer for the Torrey-Alexander (1902–1909) and Chapman missions (1910–1916). He wrote 61 tunes and 14 hymn texts for
Alexander's Hymns No. 3. In 1912 He married Adela Ruth Langsford. After World War I they moved to the USA, where he founded the Harkness Music Company and published three correspondence courses on hymn playing. He edited the periodical
The Sacred Musician and wrote the biography
Ruben Archer Torrey: The Man and His Message (1929). For 40…
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Religion Past and Present
Harleß, Adolf Gottlieb Christoph von
(312 words)
[German Version] (Nov 21, 1806, Nürnberg – Oct 5, 1879, Munich), studied with F.W.J. Schelling and others in Erlangen (1823–1826) and with F.A.G. Tholuck in Halle (1826–1828). Under Tholuck's revivalist influence, he came to a “conversion experience.” He became professor in Erlangen in 1836, was transferred to Bayreuth as consistorial councillor (because of his vote in the “genuflexion controversy”), became professor in Leipzig (1845), preacher at the upper court and vice-president of the regional…
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Religion Past and Present
Harms, Claus
(325 words)
[German Version] (May 25, 1778, Fahrstedt – Feb 1, 1855, Kiel), a miller's apprentice, studied theology in Kiel (1799–1802). He was shaped by F.D.E. Schleiermacher
Reden über die Religion (1799, 1993; ET:
On Religion, 1988) and idealistic and mystical literature (Novalis). He became pastor in Lunden in 1806, arch-deacon (second pastor) in Kiel in 1816. He declined to succeed Schleiermacher as preacher in Berlin in 1834 and thereupon became senior pastor and provost in Kiel in 1835. Far beyond his home, Harms first became renowned as a preacher: more than 300 sermons, som…
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Religion Past and Present
Harms, Georg Ludwig Detlev Theodor
(169 words)
[German Version] (also Georg Louis; May 5, 1808, Walsrode – Nov 14, 1865, Hermannsburg). Harms was the leading figure of the Her-¶ mannsburg Revival (Revival/Revival movements: I, 7), the effects of which are still felt today, and the founder of the Hermannsburg Mission (1849). After theological studies at Göttingen (1827–1830) and many years as a private tutor, during which he had been active in revival and missionary circles in northern Germany, on Oct 10, 1849, he became pastor in Hermannsburg, where he had alread…
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Religion Past and Present
Harnack
(1,413 words)
[German Version]
1. Theodosius Andreas (Jan 3, 1817, St. Petersburg – Sep 23, 1889, Tartu [Ger. Dorpat], Estonia). Harnack studied at Dorpat from 1834 to 1837; after three years as a private tutor, he also studied at Berlin, Bonn, and Erlangen. He became a Privatdozent in 1843. From 1848 to 1852 and again from 1866 to 1875 he was professor of practical theology at Dorpat, from 1853 to 1866 at Erlangen. In 1852/1853 he taught systematic theology at Dorpat. He was orphaned at 15; in 1857 his first wife…
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Religion Past and Present
Harnisch, Christian Wilhelm
(276 words)
[German Version] (Aug 28, 1787, Wilsnack – Aug 15, 1864, Berlin). After concluding his theological studies in Halle and Frankfurt an der Oder, Harnisch turned to education and became a teacher at the Plamann Institute for Education in Berlin. Critical engagement with the work of J.H. Pestalozzi became characteristic of his school practice and writing, beginning with
Deutsche Volksschulen mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Pestalozzischen Grundsätze (German public schools with attention to the principles of Pestalozzi, 1812). Since 1812, as the first teacher in …
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Religion Past and Present
Haroutunian, Joseph
(152 words)
[German Version] (Sep 18, 1904, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey – Nov 5, 1968, Chicago, IL), Presbyterian theologian, in the American tradition of pragmatism and J. Edwards. After studying at the American University in Beirut, Union Theological Seminary (New York), and Columbia University, he taught at various American institutions. As a theocentric Protestant, he castigated fundamentalism, liberalism, and early Neo-orthodoxy on the grounds that they were more interested in human sensitivities than in God. …
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Religion Past and Present
Harris, Howel
(204 words)
[German Version] (Jan 23, 1714, Trevecca, Wales – Jul 21, 1773, Trevecca, Breconshire, Wales), founder of Welsh Methodism (Methodists: II, 2). Originally intended for pastoral ministry in the Anglican Church, Harris became the head of a school after the death of his father in 1730. In 1735 he experienced an evangelical conversion and became a lay preacher. His preaching drew large crowds, and he began extended preaching tours. From 1735 to 1750 he was a key figure in the revival movement (Revival/…
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Religion Past and Present
Harris, William Wadé
(623 words)
[German Version] (c. 1860 – 1929, Half Graway, Liberia, Africa), a West African (Liberian) Christian “prophet” who belonged to the Grebo people. After 1913–1915, he led a large movement, transcending ethnic groups, that turned away from tribal religion and that led to the origin of the Church of Twelve Apostles (Gold Coast), the Église Harriste (Ivory Coast) and finally to the tens of thousands of new members in Roman Catholic and Methodist missionary congregations. Harris's mother was a first-gen…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartenstein, Karl
(291 words)
[German Version] (Jan 25, 1894, Cannstatt – Oct 1, 1952, Stuttgart). Hartenstein studied theology in Tübingen from 1913 to 1921 (interrupted by the war). The “crisis” of World War I led Hartenstein to the theology of K. Barth, which he utilized fruitfully for the theology of missions. Through his wife, Margarete (née Umfrid) and his brother-in-law, Hermann Umfrid, who “cried out for the Jews” in 1933 and was, therefore, driven to his death by the National Socialists, Hartenstein established a clos…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartlieb, Samuel
(176 words)
[German Version] (or Hartlib; c. 1600, Elbing – 1662, London). After studying at Cambridge (1625/1626), Hartlieb moved permanently to England c. 1628. He combined enthusiasm for F. Bacon's scientific reforms with chiliastic expectations and utopian Christian ideas (J.V. Andreae), to whose realization he dedicated himself as an organizer, publisher, correspondent, and publicist. He saw the Puritan revolution as the onset of the millennium, which would bring to England a golden age of science togeth…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartmann, Eduard von
(174 words)
[German Version] (Feb 23, 1842, Berlin – Jun 5, 1906, Berlin). The son of a Prussian major general, Hartmann served in the Prussian Guard Artillery Regiment from 1858 until retirement through invalidity (with the rank of first lieutenant) in 1865. He turned to the life of an autodidact and private scholar, attracting great public attention as a militant exponent of philosophical pessimism in the vein of A. Schopenhauer with his early work
Philosophie des Unbewußten (1868, 121923; ET:
Philosophy of the Unconscious, 1884). Despite many invitations to join the faculty of a Germ…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartmann, Johann Ludwig
(180 words)
[German Version] (Feb 3, 1640, Rothenburg ob der Tauber – Aug 18, 1680, Rothenburg ob der Tauber). After studying at Wittenberg under A. Calovius, in 1660 Hartmann became pastor in Spielbach, in 1661 rector of the gymnasium in Rothenburg, and in 1666 pastor of Sankt Jakobi and superintendent. After receiving his doctorate from Tübingen in 1670, he published several volumes of sermons (including
Das wahre Christenthum… in einer Hertz Postill, 1671), a
Biblischer Catechismus (1678), and numerous works of popular edification (
Fluchspiegel, 1673;
Spielteufel, 1678;
Lästerteufel, 167…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartmann, Nicolai
(551 words)
[German Version] (Feb 20, 1882, Riga, Latvia – Oct 9, 1950, Göttingen), came to philosophy, particularly that of Marburg Neo-Kantianism, by way of the study of medicine and classical philology. This led him to a critical analysis of epistemological idealism. Also influenced by the phenomenological method developed by E. Husserl and its modification by M. Scheler, Hartmann arrived at a way to a new ontology in 1921 in his work
Grundzüge einer Metaphysik der Erkenntnis [Principles of a metaphysics of cognition]. This ultimately guided him into an ontological realism. Hi…
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Religion Past and Present
Hartmann von Aue
(738 words)
[German Version] (c. 1160 – c. 1210), along with Heinrich von Veldeke, one of the founders of classical courtly literature in Middle High German. Origins and sphere of activity are to be sought in Swabia-Alemannia, perhaps in the surroundings of the ducal court of the house of Zähringen. According to his own statement, he was a “dienstman” (
ministerialis) in a place called “Ouwe” (which cannot be identified with certainty). He proudly identifies himself as a knight who – rather unusually in the 12th century – had also obtained sound schooling, althoug…
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Religion Past and Present
Harvard University
(203 words)
[German Version] America's oldest institution of higher learning was founded in 1636 by the Puritans only six years after their arrival in Massachusetts Bay. Around 1805, the Unitarians assumed oversight over the University, a move that reflected a change in theological orientation. After a few years, the decision was made to establish a school devoted to theological studies separate from the College. The beginnings of the Divinity School cannot be dated precisely. The program was in full operatio…
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Religion Past and Present
Hase, Cornelius de
(209 words)
[German Version] (Nov 13, 1653, Frankfurt am Main – May 16, 1717, Bremen), Reformed theologian. Hase studied under J. Cocceius and T. Undereyck. The latter, with whom he lived in Kassel, arranged a junior appointment as
Frühprediger with the Martinikirche in Bremen in 1676. In 1679 he became the assistant; in 1683 he was also appointed professor of ¶ theology at the Bremen gymnasium, where he served several terms as rector. In 1685 he received his doctorate in theology from Groningen. In 1693 he was appointed chief pastor of the Martinikirche and in 170…
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Religion Past and Present
Hase, Karl August von
(411 words)
[German Version] (Aug 25, 1800, Niedersteinbach – Jan 3, 1890, Jena), representative of critical theology and liberal Protestantism in the 19th century. After an eventful youth (theological studies in Leipzig and Erlangen, expelled from both universities for fraternity activities, Habilitation in Tübingen 1823, imprisoned in Hohenasperg 1824/25, renewed Habilitation in Leipzig 1828), Hase was called to Jena in 1830 where he taught until 1883 and was the dominant figure on the faculty. He attained …
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Religion Past and Present
Hasenkamp, Johann Gerhard
(380 words)
[German Version] (Jul 12, 1736, Wechte – Jun 27, 1777, Duisburg), in his youth contacts with members of the revival movement (Revival/Revival movements) from the Ravensberger Land. After studying at the Calvinist College in Lingen, he wrote a number of works that earned him charges of Socinian heterodoxy and of rejecting the church's doctrine of atonement, charges which, despite the publication of an explanation, he was not able to deflect. Prompted by mystical experiences, he attempted to convert…
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Religion Past and Present
Hasidic Tales
(276 words)
[German Version] The use of narrative literature in the presentation of Hasidism occurred mainly more than a century after the beginning of the movement. It peaked in the period between 1863 and 1914 when many scores of collections of Hasidic tales were published in Hebrew and Yiddish, mainly in Poland. In the ealier period of Hasidism, only two narrative works were published, both in 1815:
Shivchey ha-Besht [In praise of the Besht], a hagiographic biography of the founder of the movement, Israel Baʾal Shem Tov (acronym Besht; this collection became paradigmat…
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Religion Past and Present
Hasidism
(1,178 words)
[German Version] I. Modern Hasidism – II. Ashkenazi Hasidism
I. Modern Hasidism Hasidism is the largest and most important Orthodox Jewish religious movement of the modern period. Founded in southern Russian by Rabbi Israel Baʾal ¶ Shem Tov (acronym
Besht) in the middle of the 18th century, it spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. Today its strongholds are in the great cities on the East Coast of the USA and in Israel. Before the Holocaust, the movement had several million members; today it numbers several hundred thousand,…
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Religion Past and Present
Hasper, Hendrik
(149 words)
[German Version] (Sep 14, 1886, Enumatil – Mar 24, 1974, Rijswijk). Hasper, who studied theology at Amsterdam from 1905 to 1913, served as a pastor on the island of Schiermonnikoog, in Oldeboorn, in Heemstede, and in The Hague. He is a major figure in hymnology. His published works include a history of the Genevan Psalter (Psalms/Psalter: IV, 3.b). His views on the notation of its tunes and his interpretation of Calvin's guidelines for singing in church were controversial. He was very disappointed…
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Religion Past and Present
Haßler, Hans Leo
(294 words)
[German Version] (baptized on Oct 26, 1564, Nuremberg – Jun 8, 1612, Frankfurt am Main), an ¶ organist and composer from a family of musicians. His father Isaak (c. 1530–1591) was an organist, his brother Kaspar (1562–1618) an organist and composer as well as publisher of various printed compilations of music, while his brother Jakob (1569–1622) was also an organist and composer. Haßler began studying under his father in Nuremberg, but went to Venice in 1584 to study under A. Gabrieli. In 1586, he secured his fi…
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Religion Past and Present
Hatred
(1,212 words)
[German Version] I. Bible and Dogmatics – II. Psychology and Ethics
I. Bible and Dogmatics Because hatred, as opposed to spontaneous and short-lived affects such as anger and wrath, refers to a long-term attitude (I. Kant; cf. II below) which grips a person entirely, the biblical antithesis of hatred and love can denote a comprehensive alternative of extremes in which human beings find themselves. The biblical texts speak of love and hatred in the context of situations that make nuanced reflection impossible…
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Religion Past and Present
Hattem, Pontiaen van
(235 words)
[German Version] (1645, Bergen op Zoom, The Netherlands – 1706, Bergen op Zoom), Reformed pastor in Sint Philipsland (Tholen Island, Zeeland) after 1672. In 1680, he fell under suspicion of teaching Spinozism in ecclesial guise. The responsible classical assembly of Tholen submitted the manuscript of his catechetical instruction to the judgment of the theology faculties in Leiden and Utrecht. The latter condemned it as blasphemous and Hattem was suspended. After a trial lasting three years, the pr…
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Religion Past and Present
Ḫattuša
(207 words)
[German Version] The capital of the Hittites (Asia Minor) in Central Anatolia, near Boǧazköy or Boǧazkale in the province of Çorum, 150 km east of Ankara in present-day Turkey, was sporadically inhabited from the Chalcolithic period onward. In the 19th and 18th centuries bce, it was the site of a
karum (an Assyrian trading ¶ colony). From c. 1600 bce, it was the capital and residence of the Hittite kings. The walled city territory reached a size of 180 hectares and was studded with official buildings and also comprised palatial structures protected by m…
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Religion Past and Present
Hätzer, Ludwig
(168 words)
[German Version] (c. 1500, Bischofszell, Switzerland – 1529, Constance). After receiving a Humanist education, in 1523 Hätzer supported Zwingli's Reformation in Zürich, in this context writing a pamphlet against images that was based on the biblical prohibition (Veneration of images: VI). He was banished in 1525 because he had criticized infant baptism the year before. He traveled extensively and had many friends among the Reformers of southern Germany. He produced translations of the Reformers' w…
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Religion Past and Present
Hauck, Albert
(358 words)
[German Version] (Dec 9, 1845, Wassertrüdingen, – Apr 7, 1918, Leipzig), the most important Protestant church historian of Wilhelmine Germany besides A. v. Harnack, studied Protestant theology in Erlangen and Berlin. He experienced formative impulses of Erlangen Lutheranism from J.C. von Hofmann and Gustav Leopold Plitt, and, in the spirit of historicism, from L. v. Ranke. Having passed the qualifying exam for theology in Bavaria (1868), Hauck entered into church service. On the basis of a monogra…
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Religion Past and Present
Hauer, Jakob Wilhelm
(241 words)
[German Version] (Apr 4, 1881, Ditzingen – Feb 18, 1962, Tübingen), educated in the Basel Mission and, after 1907, a missionary in India. Hauer was shaped by Wurttembergian Pietism, studied Indology and taught as professor of Indology (and general history of religions) in Marburg after 1925 (cooperation with F. Heiler, R. Otto), then in Tübingen beginning in 1927 (
Glaube und Blut, 1938). Chancellor of the Köngener Bund from 1920, co-founder (1933), then leader of the Deutsche Glaubensbewegung (German Faith Movement) (1934–1936), and editor of the journal
Deutscher Glaube (1933–194…
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Religion Past and Present
Hauge, Hans Nielsen
(343 words)
[German Version] (Apr 3, 1771, Rolvsøy, Norway – Mar 29, 1824, Aker, Norway), farmer's son ¶ reared in Pietism. In his parental home, he read Luther, Johann Arndt, H. Müller and E. Pontoppidan. On Apr 5, 1796, Hauge had a life-changing religious experience and from then on was active throughout Norway as a lay preacher and author, forming community associations and calling for lay preaching. His preaching was closely related to his work to improve agriculture and to establish industrial and trade concerns. Haug…
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Religion Past and Present
Haug, Johann Friedrich
(316 words)
[German Version] (often erroneously called
Heinrich; Apr 17, 1680, Strasbourg – Mar 12, 1753, Berleburg). While still a theology student in his hometown, Haug was already involved in a fierce controversy concerning Pietist-Philadelphian conventicles. Following his banishment (1705) and a two-year sojourn in Esslingen that also ended with his expulsion (
Zeugnuß der Liebe an die Inwohnere der Stadt Straßburg und Eißlingen [Testimony of love to the inhabitants of the city of Strassburg and Eißlingen] (1708), Haug settled with his father David and his brothe…
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Religion Past and Present
Hauptmann, Gerhart
(1,229 words)
[German Version] (Nov 15, 1862, Szcawno Zdrój [Ger. Bad Salzbrunn], Poland – Jun 6, 1946, Jagniątków [Ger. Agnetendorf], Poland). Hauptmann, who gained international fame with the social drama in Silesian dialect
Die Weber (1892; ET:
The Weavers, 1977; Nobel Prize, 1912), is the best-known representative of naturalism in German literature. After an uncertain search, the production of
Vor Sonnenaufgang (Berlin, 1889; ET:
Before Daybreak, 1978), which was surrounded by scandal, brought his breakthrough to success, which was consolidated through his long-term …
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Religion Past and Present
Hausmann, Nikolaus
(201 words)
[German Version] (1478/1479, Freiberg – Nov 3, 1538, Freiberg). The son of a town councillor, Hausmann began to study the liberal arts in 1498 in Leipzig, received his M.A. in 1503, and was ordained in Altenburg. He became a preacher in Schneeberg and a close follower of Luther from 1519. In 1521 he took over the pastoral position at St. Mary's in Zwickau (the center of early Reformation activity) and, in careful cooperation with the city council, established a Protestant church presence. As a cle…
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Religion Past and Present
Hausmusik
(378 words)
[German Version] The term
Hausmusik (house music) arose in connection with the Lutheran culture of hymns (first used by Bartholomäus Gesius, 1605; Church song). It refers to interactive music-making in homes or other spheres of daily life, generally in groups and not in public. Into the 20th century, important parts of European music were oriented toward house performance without the term always being used. German Protestant
Hausmusik is older and more comprehensive than the normal use of the term might imply, extending from songs for one voice to complex voca…
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Religion Past and Present
Hausrath, Adolf
(392 words)
[German Version] (Jan 13, 1837, Karlsruhe – Aug 2, 1909, Heidelberg), a Protestant church historian. The son of a prominent pastor from Baden, Hausrath studied Protestant theology and history from 1856 onward in liberal Jena, where K.A. v. Hase became his teacher and close friend. Following study visits to Göttingen, Berlin, and Heidelberg, Hausrath earned his Lic.theol. in Berlin with a study entitled
Der Ketzermeister Konrad von Marburg (1861). After completing his curacy, he gained his Habilitation in Heidelberg in 1862 and was employed as an assessor in the…
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Religion Past and Present
Haustafel
(386 words)
[German Version] The term
Haustafel, “domestic code,” refers to a list of the various duties and responsibilities of the members of a household. Such lists appear in ancient ¶ ethical literature and set out the appropriate behavior toward gods, the state, friends, other members of the household, and outsiders. Content, form, and function vary considerably; domestic codes appear in the unwritten laws of Greek popular culture (Aesch.
Supplices 701–709), in various philosophical traditions (Cic.
Off. 1.17.58; Sen.
Ep. 94.1; Ps-Plut.
Moralia 7e; Hierocles Stoicus), Hellenistic …
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Religion Past and Present
Havelberg
(272 words)
[German Version] A German castle has existed on the narrow mountain ridge along the River Havel since 929. Emperor Otto the Great founded a bishopric here in 948, which was not permanently occupied until the mid-12th century. Premonstratensians constituted the cathedral chapter and began the construction of ¶ the cathedral, characterized by a broad westwork, in 1150. Anselm of Havelberg, the most important theologian from the bishopric, called it
turris fortitudinis because the location of the cathedral chapter in the still pagan environment continued to be very p…
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Religion Past and Present
Hävernick, Heinrich Andreas Christoph
(173 words)
[German Version] (Dec 29, 1811, Kröpelin – Aug 19, 1845, Neustrelitz), Protestant theologian and OT exegete. After a solid philological training, Hävernick studied Protestant theology and Semitic languages from 1827 to 1830 in Leipzig, Halle, and Berlin, where he received his Lic.theol. and Dr.phil. A follower of F.A.G. Tholuck in the theological controversies of the period, in Berlin he became a devoted student of E.W. Hengstenberg. On the recommendation of both, he received a call to the École d…
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Religion Past and Present
Hawthorne, Nathaniel
(190 words)
[German Version] (Aug 4, 1804, Salem, MA – May 19, 1864, Plymouth, NH), Romantic master of American fiction and classical interpreter of New England Puritanism (Puritans/Puritanism). One of his ancestors, a judge in the 18th-century Salem witchcraft trials and immortalized by Hawthorne in the patriarch of
The House of the Seven Gables (1851), stands under the family curse: “God will give him blood to drink.” In 1808 Hawthorne's father, a ship's captain, died of yellow fever in Surinam, leaving the family impoverished. After graduation from colle…
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Religion Past and Present
Haydn
(586 words)
[German Version]
1. Franz Joseph (Mar 31, 1732, Rohrau, Austria – May 31, 1809, Vienna) was an Austrian composer of great importance for the history of music, who strongly influenced the mellow classical style and the form of the symphony, the string quartet, and the piano sonata. In addition, he composed 14 masses (IV), six oratorios and secular songs, church songs, chamber music, as well as various instrumental works. He received his musical education from the age of six, attending the choir school…
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Religion Past and Present
Hayek, Friedrich August von
(245 words)
[German Version] (May 8, 1899, Vienna – Mar 23, 1992, Freiburg i.Br.), studied law and economics in Vienna, was director of the Östereichisches Institut für Konjunkturforschung (Austrian Institute for Economic Research) (1927–1931), held professorships in the London School of Economics (1931–1950), Chicago (1950–1962), Freiburg im Breisgau (1962–1968), and received the Nobel Memorial Prize from the Bank of Sweden in 1974. Beginning with studies on monetary and economic cyle theory, Hayek turned in ¶ the 1940s to the study of the theoretical, socio-philosophical and a…
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Religion Past and Present
Haymo
(163 words)
[German Version] Ever since the
Catalogus illustrium virorum Germaniae (1495) of J. Trithemius, Haymo of Halberstadt, bishop from 840 to 853, has been identified as the author of numerous biblical commentaries, printed in volumes 116–118 of Migne's PL. Probably, however, not a few of these commentaries were actually written by Haymo of Auxerre, who headed an important school from the middle through the second half of the 9th century at the Abbey of St. Germain in Auxerre. Today the widely disseminated c…
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Religion Past and Present
Haynes, Lemuel
(206 words)
[German Version] (Jul 18, 1753, Westfort, CT – Sep 28, 1833, Granville, NY), was a black pastor who, on the basis of the theology of J. Edwards, fought against slavery and racial discrimination. The son of a white woman and a black man, he grew up as a slave and served as a solder in the American War of Independence. He published essays and sermons. His reform ideas were influenced by Edwards and the English abolitionists (Abolitionism): reason knows of the existence of God ¶ and the injustice of slavery, but from reason alone no moral teaching can be derived. Sin is intentional…
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Religion Past and Present
Hazor
(333 words)
[German Version] (“enclosure”) was a large fortified town in northern Galilee, situated at the intersection of the roads leading northwards from the Jordan valley to the Beqa valley and the Lebanese coast. The most important city in Canaan in the 2nd millennium bce, Hazor is mentioned in the clay tablets from the 18th century bce that were excavated in Mari dealing with the diplomatic and trade relations to the Mesopotamian and North Syrian kingdoms. Hazor asserted its position in northern Canaan even after the Egyptian conquest of the land in 1457 bce. The settlement of ancient Hazor…
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Religion Past and Present
Headlam, Stewart Duckworth
(158 words)
[German Version] (Jan 12, 1847, Wavertree, England – Nov 18, 1924, St. Margaret's-on-Thames), Anglican priest. During his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A. 1869), Headlam was inspired by F.D. Maurice. His liberal theological views and many controversial campaigns, for example, his defense of the theater and dancing as well as his public support of O. Wilde, shocked the Victorian ecclesiastical establishment, which forced him to resign from all his church posts. A sensational speech in Tr…
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Religion Past and Present
Healing and Anointing
(323 words)
[German Version] From the earliest period, healing has played a role in Christianity. The Gospels are replete with accounts of Jesus' healing, and the apostles continued this practice (Mark 6:13). The key passage for all subsequent developments is Jas 5:14–16. The elders “pray over” the sick, “anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord” in order to heal body and soul (Sickness and Healing). All Christians should pray for the healing of others. The 3rd-century apostolic tradition knew of an ep…
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Religion Past and Present
Healing Gods
(438 words)
[German Version] Among different activities and capabilities, the capacity to heal has also been attributed to gods (Gods, Groups of). Protecting, preserving, delivering and healing are part of a broad spectrum of concepts about the activity of the gods. Healing gods in the more restricted sense, legitimized as the sons or daughters of the great gods, exercise specific activities and sometimes bear reference to their medical activity in their names (Mesopotamia, Syria). In accordance with the soci…
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Religion Past and Present
Healing Movements in Religion
(792 words)
[German Version] (in North America). A widespread belief in supernatural healing has survived all attacks from the Enlightenment and the natural sciences brought against it in the history of America. In the American colonial period, it was a component of the conceptual world of population groups of African, European and American origin. In the late 18th century, educated Protestant clergy under the influence of the Enlightenment began to doubt the validity of contemporary accounts of miracles. Thi…
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Religion Past and Present
Health
(1,154 words)
[German Version] I. Ethics – II. Practical Theology
I. Ethics Health is a normative concept denoting the physical, psychological, and mental state in which individuals
ought to find themselves, so as to be able to cope positively with their situation. Thus, health may not be defined as an ideal condition, but always only as an individual's capacity to act independently. Therefore, health cannot be equated with the absence of sickness (Sickness and Healing), just as sickness does not merely mean the loss of health. Heal…
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Religion Past and Present
Health Care Reform
(728 words)
[German Version] The reform of health care denotes the legal measures that are put in place to limit ¶ the increase in the percentage taken by health care expenditure in the Gross National Product. In this respect, almost all reform measures taken by Western European states have had the primary goal of curbing costs. Further and often subordinate goals have been the leveling of inequalities in the health care of certain population groups as well as the improvement of the control of particular disease patterns (Sic…
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Religion Past and Present
Health Education
(555 words)
[German Version] I. Kant (
Der Streit der Fakultäten, part 3, 1798; ET:
The Conflict of the Faculties, 1979], Part 3, 1798) defined health as a circumstance beyond human control that transitions imperceptibly into sickness (Sickness and Healing) so that one can feel well and, nonetheless, already be sick. Only in retrospect on time already lived can one say that one
was healthy. With a view to praxis, this implies that, as a fundamental medical concept, health defines the goal of medical treatment. However, it cannot produce the state to be attained, whic…
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Religion Past and Present
Heart
(1,193 words)
[German Version] I. Body and Soul –II. Mortality and Eternity – III. Perception and Love –IV. Sin and Grace
I. Body and Soul Very early on and in remarkable universality, the central location of the heart in the human body (Organs) and its constitutive importance for the process of living provoked the construal of psychic experience in analogy to ¶ the physical experience of the heart and the concentration of the human self-understanding on the heart as the ground of existence. Since the concept of the heart comprises elements of physical and intelle…
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Religion Past and Present
Heart, Prayer of the
(207 words)
[German Version] The heart is the “seat of all human powers” (Feofan the Hermit). In a basic disposition, it provides the multiplicity of sequential moments of life with stability. Oriental Christianity always idealized the state of prayer (
katástasis), understood as a constant feeling which, as such, already merits the designation “prayer.” In order to attain it, careful “attention to the heart” (
prosochḗ) must be given: first, the banishment of evil thoughts and then positive attention, heeding divine inspiration that originates in the heart itself. In …
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Religion Past and Present
Heaven
(3,990 words)
[German Version] Cosmology and Kingdom of God I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament –III. New Testament – IV. Church History – V. Dogmatics – VI. Contemporary Art
I. Religious Studies
1. To a vision that has not been tamed by scientific theory, heaven is a realm of the beyond (Hereafter, Concepts of the). Like the netherworld, it invades the human world as air or earth and sea, but it is beyond the experience of mortals; it is concrete, but cannot be entered. Observation of the concrete phenomena confirms the symbol …
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Religion Past and Present
Heavenly Jerusalem
(8 words)
[German Version] Jerusalem, The Heavenly
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Religion Past and Present
Heavenly Voice
(387 words)
[German Version] (
Bat Qol). Voices of revelation are quite common in ancient Judaism: in the pseudepigrapha and in apocalypticism, in the “Rewritten Bible” (
Jub., LAB), and in the Judeo-Hellenistic authors. In rabbinic literature, the heavenly voice attains particular significance since it appears in the technical term
bat qol ¶ (origins unexplained; Targumic Aramaic
berat qala) in a total of approx. 127 tradition complexes. According to
t. Soṭah XIII 3f. parr., as a mediator of revelation it is a substitute for the Holy Spirit of prophecy, although of lesser quality (
b. Yoma 9b;
Pesiq…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebbel, Christian Friedrich
(615 words)
[German Version] (Mar 18, 1813, Wesselburen – Dec 13, 1863, Vienna), important post-classical dramatist, also prominent as a lyricist, narrator and critic and valued as a subjectivist diarist (regular diaries beginning in 1835). An autodidact by type, Hebbel at the same time is heavily influenced by the tradition of F. v. Schiller and L. Uhland, and later also of J.W. v. Goethe in lyricism and drama, and of F.W.J. Schelling, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger (1780–1819; “teacher of my youth”) and G.W.F. Hegel in theory and aestheti…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebel, Johann Peter
(915 words)
[German Version] (May 10, 1760, Basel – Sep 22, 1826, Schwetzingen), theologian, teacher, and (world-class) popular writer. Transience – the title of his most important dialect poem (“Die Vergänglichkeit”) – shaped Hebel's world and experience from an early age. In 1761 his father and one-month-old little sister died; as a thirteen-year-old, he witnessed his mother's death from an illness on a return journey from Basel into the Wiesental. Because of a legacy and support, he was able to attend the …
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Religion Past and Present
Hébert, Marcel
(207 words)
[German Version] (Apr 22, 1851, Bar-le-Duc – Feb 12, 1916, Paris). After studying Catholic theology at the St. Sulpice Seminary in Paris, Hébert was ordained priest in 1876. From 1879, he taught at the École Fénelon in Paris and became its director in 1895. Dismissed from office in 1901 on account of his
Souvenirs d'Assise, he left the church and began teaching at the Université Nouvelle in Brussels in 1903. In 1907, he returned to Paris. He devoted himself to social problems, the relationship between the natural sciences and the Bible, and the rel…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebler, Matthias
(140 words)
[German Version] (c. 1525, Carpona, Transylvania – Sep 18, 1571, Sibiu, Transylvania). Hebler studied at Wittenberg from 1546 to 1551 and received his M.A. After ordination by J. Bugenhagen, in 1551 he became a teacher and in 1552 rector in Sibiu. In 1554 he was appointed preacher, in 1555 municipal pastor, and in 1556 superintendent of the Saxon church in Transylvania. In the doctrinal disputes that arose in Transylvania (F. Stancarus, M. Dévai Biró, G. Biandrata [Blandrata], F. Dávid), as a disc…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebrew Christians
(243 words)
[German Version] This movement began in the middle of the 19th century in the course of Evangelical-Protestant Jewish missions – the massive immigration of Jews to Great Britain and North America had awakened the hope for their conversion. In order to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers, converted Jews were supposed to work as missionaries among their fellow Jews. In Europe, Great Britain, and North America many Jewish-Christian prayer communities and congregations were formed (Jewish Wing of the Body of Christ), but their success was limited (Jewish Christians: IV). The Bibl…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebrews
(567 words)
[German Version] The Hebrew lexeme “Hebrews,” documented since the 1st century bce, is presumably related linguistically to a term “ḫab/piru/i” or “ʿpr.w,” which was widespread in the ancient Near East in the 2nd millennium. These texts refer to population groups that found asylum in the country in question either as foreign refugees or sometimes as prisoners of war, or that distanced themselves from the resident society; they hired themselves out for menial service in private or official capacities (esp. …
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Religion Past and Present
Hebrews, Epistle to the
(1,513 words)
[German Version] I. Authorship – II. Date – III. Adressees – IV. Genre and Structure – V. Religio-historical Background – VI. Message Among the letters ascribed to Paul, Hebrews stands out for its artful valuation of the person and work of Jesus Christ and its urgent exhortations to remain faithful. The text is a masterpiece of early Christian homiletics, interweaving imaginative interpretation of Scripture with powerful parenesis. ¶
I. Authorship The text does not name its author. A reference to “our brother Timothy” (Heb 13:23) may have led to the assumpti…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebrews, Gospel of the
(307 words)
[German Version] A
Gospel of the Hebrews is mentioned by Papias (Eus.
Hist. eccl. III 39.17) and Hegesippus (Eus.
Hist. eccl. IV 22.8) and is cited by representatives of the Alexandrian school, Clement (
Stromata, II 9.45; IV 14.96), Origen (
Comm. Jo. II 12;
Hom. Jer. XV 4), and Didymus (
Comm. Ps. 33 [34].1). It is the document of a Jewish Christian community, probably from Egypt. It must be differentiated from both the
Gospel of the
Egyptians and the
Gospel of the Ebionites (Ebionites, Gospel of the). Jerome frequently cites a
Gospel of the Hebrews read by the Nazoreans, a Jewish-Christ…
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Religion Past and Present
Hebron
(459 words)
[German Version] The site of biblical Hebron (Arab. Ǧăbal ar-Rumēda), also called Kiriath-arba (Gen 23:2 etc.), lies west of modern Hebron (Arab. el-Ḫalīl). According to Num 12:22, Hebron was built seven years before the Hyksos city of Zoan. Traditions surrounding Abraham, Sarah, and Isaac are associated with Hebron (Gen 23; 25:9f.; cf. 35:27–29). It is said to have been an Anakite city (Josh 15:13f.), taken by Joshua or Judah (Josh 10:3ff.; cf. Josh 11:21 and Judg 1:10). According to Judg 1:20, h…
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Religion Past and Present
Hecataeus of Abdera
(198 words)
[German Version] The philosopher and historiographer Hecataeus was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and of Ptolemy I (Jos.
Apion. I 183; Ptolemaic Dynasty). In his famous book,
Aegyptiaca, Hecataeus deals with part of Jewish history, as well as Jewish customs, religion and military matters (fragments in Diodoros Siculus XL 3). Josephus cites Hecataeus's essay
On the Jews (
Apion. I 183ff., cf. I 214), although its authenticity is doubted. According to Josephus, in this essay, Hecataeus deals with the relationship of the Jews to Ptolemy I, their fid…
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Religion Past and Present
Heckel
(688 words)
[German Version]
1. Johannes (Nov 24, 1889, Kammerstein, Middle Franconia – Dec 15, 1965, Tübingen), Protestant teacher of constitutional and church law. After service in the church in Munich and later in Berlin, he became a private lecturer in 1923, and supernumerary professor in Berlin in 1926; in 1928, he was a full professor of public law and church law in Bonn, and in Munich from 1934 (with an interruption), until his retirement in 1957. After his initial labors in the history of church law as …
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Religion Past and Present
Hecker, Isaac Thomas
(301 words)
[German Version] (Dec 18, 1819, New York – Dec 22, 1888, New York) was a Catholic priest and the founder of the Congregation of Missionary Priests of St. Paul the Apostle (CSP). Hecker grew up as a Methodist (Methodists), participated as a young man in 1843 in the communal life of the American Transcendentalists (Transcendentalism: II) on Brook Farm (MA), converted to Catholicism in 1844, and was ordained as a Redemptorist to the priesthood. From 1851 to 1857 he organized congregational evangelism…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedderich, Franz Anton
(178 words)
[German Version] (religious name Philipp; Nov 7, 1744, Budenheim, near Mainz – Aug 20, 1808, Düsseldorf), theologian and canonist. Hedderich became a Minorite in 1759. From 1774 to 1794 he was professor of canon law in Bonn; from 1803 on he taught at the Rechtsakademie in Düsseldorf. While he was studying law at Trier, he was decisively influenced by the personality and work of J.N. v. Hontheim. As a canonist, he was one of the most influential theoreticians of Febronianism. Hedderich emphasized t…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedenius, Ingemar
(172 words)
[German Version] (Apr 5, 1908, Stockholm – Apr 30, 1982, Uppsala) was professor of practical philosophy in Uppsala (1947–1973). After his philosophical education with Axel Hägerström (1868–1939) and Adolf Phalén (1884–1931), Hedenius turned to the philosophers G.E. Moore, B. Russell, and Charlie Dunbar Broad (1887–1971) in Cambridge and to logical positivism, according to which philosophy consists of logical analysis based on formal logic and a scientific understanding of reality (Analytic philosophy). In his 1941
Om rätt och moral [Concerning what is right and moral], H…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedinger, Johann Reinhard
(218 words)
[German Version] (Sep 7, 1664, Stuttgart – Dec 28, 1704, Stuttgart), important theologian of early Württemberg Pietism, who translated the theology of P.J. Spener into areas of church praxis, wrote the first Pietist homeletics, catechesis, and poimenics for Württemberg, and published the first hymnal. The Württemberg Confirmation (Protestant) is based on Hedinger's design. His commentary on the Luther Bible (1704) stimulated great discussion and disagreement. During 1687–1694 he was a traveling an…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedio, Kaspar
(170 words)
[German Version] (1494, Ettlingen – Oct 17, 1552, Straßburg [Strasbourg]). After education at Pforzheim, Freiburg, and Basel, Hedio became cathedral preacher in Mainz in 1520; he received his Dr.theol. in 1523. From 1523 to 1550 he served as preacher in the Strasbourg Minster. After 1549 he succeeded M. Bucer as president of the Strasbourg consistory. In 1550, as a result of the Augsburg Interim, he was transferred to the Dominican church. He was of great importance for the reform of the church an…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedonism
(379 words)
[German Version] The word derives from the Greek ἡδονή/
hēdonḗ (“joy,” “pleasure,” “enjoyment”). It appeared in England after 1850 and was first used there in the sense of eudaimonism. Sidgwick (11875) introduced it into philosophy. In current English, hedonism denotes riotous living. In German usage, the word Hedonik first appeared in A. Schopenhauer (
Werke, vol. XI, 62, 1916). It denoted (with no negative connotation) the more cheerful enjoyment of life that was then considered a characteristic of Greek antiquity (26) as an antonym of Asketik. T…
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Religion Past and Present
Hedwig, Saint
(145 words)
[German Version] (Duchess of Silesia; 1174/1178, Andechs – Oct 14, 1243, Trzebnica, Poland), canonized by Clement IV in 1267 because of her charitable works (feast day: Oct 16). She was the daughter of the Count of Andechs-Merania, and was married to Duke Henry I of Silesia (c. 1190). Both took a vow of chastity after 20 years of marriage. Hedwig withdrew to the Cistercian convent in Trzebnica in 1202, which she founded, and led an ascetic life. Her cult was maintained both among the Cistercians a…
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Religion Past and Present
Heerbrand, Jakob
(169 words)
[German Version] (Aug 12, 1521, Giengen/Brenz – May 22, 1600, Tübingen), studied philosophy and theology in Wittenberg (1538–1543, with Luther and Melanchthon, among others), became dean in Tübingen (1543), was removed from office (1548; Augsburg Interim), became pastor and superintendent in Herrenberg and received the Dr.theol. (1551), was professor of theology in Tübingen (1557–1598), while also serving as superintendent after 1561, chancellor of the university (1590–1599), provost and ducal adviser. Heerbrand was a signatory to the
Confessio Virtembergica (1551) and w…
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Religion Past and Present
Heermann, Johann
(506 words)
[German Version] (Oct 11, 1585, Rudna [Ger. Raudten], Poland – Feb 17, 1647, Lezno [Ger. Lissa], Poland), the most prominent Protestant hymnwriter between Luther and P. Gerhardt. The son of a poor furrier and of sickly constitution, Heermann attended schools in Rudna, Wrocław (Breslau), Brzeg (Brieg), and elsewhere, and spent a short time in the house of V. Herberger in Wschowa (Fraustadt) (1602). His studies in Strassburg were short, owing to illness. Officiating as pastor in Köben near Glogow (G…
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Religion Past and Present
Hefele, Karl Joseph
(438 words)
[German Version] ([v. Hefele]; Mar 15, 1809, Hochmühle near Aalen – Jun 5, 1893, Rottenburg), priest in 1833, associate professor (1835) and professor of church history in Tübingen (1840, succeeding his teacher J.A. Möhler). Hefele, along with J.E. Kuhn, led the ultramontane-young church party (Ultramontanism) in the bishopric of Rottenburg who fiercely opposed the Württemberg state church and the “late Enlightenment” clergy. He turned, however, to moderate ultramontanism after 1848. Hefele was a …
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Religion Past and Present
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
(2,088 words)
[German Version] I. Life – II. Works (Aug 27, 1770, Stuttgart – Nov 14, 1831, Berlin)
I. Life Hegel was the eldest of the three children born to the treasury secretary Georg Ludwig Hegel and his wife Maria Magdalena Luise née Fromm. He attended the Stuttgart Gymnasium, which was conducted in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and developed a strong interest in Latin, Greek, and mathematics. From 1788 to 1793 he studied with a ducal scholarship in Tübingen (II) together with F. Hoelderlin and (from 1790) F.W.J. Sc…
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Religion Past and Present
Hegelianism
(872 words)
[German Version] F. Nietzsche diagnoses as Hegelianism in the broad sense a manner of thinking that orients itself to a (reasonable) development. In the narrower sense, Hegelianism refers to the further development of G.W.F. Hegel's philosophy by his disciples, who partly elaborated upon the system he had presented mainly in his lectures and partly adapted it to the needs of individual disciplines: logic (Feuerbach, Rosenkranz), philo-¶ sophical historiography (L. Feuerbach, J.E. Erdmann), and philosophy of law (Gans), art (Hotho), and religion. During the rel…
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Religion Past and Present
Hegelund, Peder Jensen
(166 words)
[German Version] (Jun 9, 1542, Ribe, Denmark – Feb 18, 1614, Ribe), bishop and author. After studies at Copenhagen, Leipzig, and Wittenberg, where he received his master's degree, in 1569 he was appointed rector, in 1580 canon in the cathedral chapter, and in 1588 pastor of the cathedral church in Ribe, where finally in 1595 he became bishop. He was an admirer of P. Melanchthon and, along with his acquaintance N. Hemmingsen, one of the most important representatives of Philippism in Denmark. Train…
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Religion Past and Present
Hegemonius
(181 words)
[German Version] According to a late and doubtful tradition, Hegemonius is the otherwise unknown author of the so-called
Acta Archelai. These
Acta, which were probably written in Greek between 325 and 348 ce and the full text of which is only preserved in a Latin translation from the 4th century, present themselves as an account of the debates between a certain Archelaus, bishop of Carchar (Carrhae/Haran in Osroëne?), and Mani. For several centuries and in various languages, the
Acta occupied a very important place among the patristic and medieval texts directed against M…
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Religion Past and Present
Hegesippus (Saint)
(165 words)
[German Version] (2nd half of the 2nd cent. ce). Probably a Jewish Christian from Palestine or Syria, Hegesippus composed five books of
Hypomnemata or memoirs; the genre (church history? apology?), content, and structure of the work do not emerge clearly from the title and the few extant fragments. Attacking Gnosticism (Gnosis/Gnosticism), he sought to safeguard the “uncorrupted testimony” of the apostolic preaching, which he found preserved in Scripture and through apostolic succession. He also traveled via Corinth …
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Religion Past and Present
Hegius, Alexander
(158 words)
[German Version] (c. 1439/1440, Burgsteinfurt – Dec 1498, Deventer, Netherlands). Hegius studied the
artes liberales in Rostock beginning in 1456. As the director of schools affiliated with the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life (1469 Wesel, 1474 Emmerich, after 1476 Deventer), Hegius placed pedagogy in the service of Humanism (friendship with R. Agricola from 1479) by teaching a method to approach Greek and Latin which is schooled in the ancient sources ¶ and observes the rules of rhetoric. Hegius exerted a strong influence on 16th-century German and Dutch Huma…
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Religion Past and Present
Heidanus
(271 words)
[German Version] (van der Heyden)
1. Caspar (1530, Mechelen, Belgium – May 7, 1586, Bacharach), Flemish Reformed pastor. As a lay theologian, he worked under the most difficult circumstances in the early years of the rebellion against Spain to constitute the life of the Reformed Church as a pastor in Antwerp (1551–1558 and 1579–1585), in Middelburg (1574–1579), in the refugee congregations in Frankfurt amMain and Frankenthal (1558–1574), and, finally, after 1586 as inspector in Bacharach. He participat…
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Religion Past and Present