Religion Past and Present
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Subject: Religious Studies
Edited by: Hans Dieter Betz, Don S. Browning†, Bernd Janowski and Eberhard Jüngel
Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
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Religion Past and Present (RPP) Online is the online version of the updated English translation of the 4th edition of the definitive encyclopedia of religion worldwide: the peerless Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This great resource, now at last available in English and Online, Religion Past and Present Online continues the tradition of deep knowledge and authority relied upon by generations of scholars in religious, theological, and biblical studies. Including the latest developments in research, Religion Past and Present Online encompasses a vast range of subjects connected with religion.
Subscriptions: see brill.com
Pacca, Bartolomeo
(270 words)
[German Version] (Dec 25, 1756, Benevento – Apr 19, 1844, Rome) came from a noble family and was doctor of canon and civil law. In 1785 he was consecrated titular bishop of Damietta, and in the same year, without the recognition of the archbishop of Cologne, took office in the city as papal nuncio. Against episcopalism (II; Ems, Congress of), he vigorously represented the papal position. As nuncio in Lisbon (1794/1795–1802) he fought with equal vigor (having been made a cardinal in 1801) against P…
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Religion Past and Present
Pachelbel, Johann
(204 words)
[German Version] (baptized Sep 1, 1653, Nuremberg – buried 3 Sep, 1706, Nuremberg), German organist (Organ) and composer, educated in his home town under Heinrich Schwemmer and Georg Kaspar Wecker. In 1673 Pachelbel became assistant organist at St. Stephen’s Church in Vienna, and may have studied under Johann Kaspar Kerl. In 1677 he became court organist in Eisenach, where he was the teacher of J.S. Bach’s brother, Johann Christoph. In 1678 he became organist of the Predigerkirche in Erfurt, in 16…
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Religion Past and Present
Pachomius Rhusanus
(209 words)
[German Version] (1508, Zakynthos – 1553, Zakynthos), theologian and popular educator under Turkish rule. Study in Venice was followed by periods as a monk in the Iviron monastery (Athos). Through his thorough knowledge of classical, biblical, and patristic literature he became a warning voice against dangerous teachings of his time. In his book
De divinarum Scripturarum utilitate (PG 98, 1333A–1360A), he recommends it as a medicine against religious and moral uncertainty, and against the collapse of language into what have become barbarian dialects.…
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Religion Past and Present
Pachomius, Saint
(369 words)
[German Version] (c. 292–346, Pabau), Egyptian saint and founder of cenobitic (Cenobites) monasticism. It is reported that he came from a non-Christian family close to the Thebaid. Shortly after his conversion ¶ at the age of 20 he embraced an ascetic life as a disciple of the anchorite Palamon. His vision of a more organized form of the ascetic life led him to form his own community in 323 in the deserted village of Tabennisi. The regulated communal life that he developed there proved very attractive. By the time of his death…
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Religion Past and Present
Pacianus
(211 words)
[German Version] (early 4th cent. – before 393), bishop of Barcelona. Nothing is known of his life apart from a few notes in Jerome (esp.
Vir. ill. 106). He was married, and had a son called Dexter. He was elected bishop between 343 and 373. Considered genuine are three letters to the Novatian Sympronianus (I 4 contains the saying
Christianus mihi nomen est, catholicus vero cognomen), following on from Tertullian and Cyprian of Carthage in attacking Novatianism, the
Paraenesis sive exhortatorius libellus ad paenitentiam, and the sermon
De baptismo. These writings are important evid…
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Religion Past and Present
Pacifism
(749 words)
[German Version] The human longing for peace is as old as conflict and war. In recent decades the qualitative difference of the Second World War with its destruction of the civilian population, sometimes deliberate, and the increased capacity for mass annihilation, especially by nuclear weapons (II), have given it new life. Pacifism (from Lat.
pax, “peace”) means a radically idealistic way of life that categorically rejects all use of force or violence on ethical or religious grounds and calls for unconditional readiness for peace. The concept of p…
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Religion Past and Present
Pack Affairs (Packsche Händel)
(268 words)
[German Version] In the spring of 1528, a political confrontation over religion seriously threatened the peace of the Empire. Otto v. Pack ¶ (c. 1484–1537), vice-chancellor in Dresden, reported to Landgrave Philip of Hesse concerning an alleged alliance of Catholic princes and bishops (Archduke Ferdinand, Duke George the Bearded of Saxony, Bavaria, Brandenburg, Mainz, Bamberg, Salzburg, Würzburg) formed in Breslau (today Wrocław) in May of 1527 with the goal of ousting Philip and Elector John the Constant and crushing…
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Religion Past and Present
Paderborn
(569 words)
[German Version]
Paderborn, city at the springs of the Pader River; archiepiscopal see since 1930. The population was 144,258 in December of 2006. Since 1994 (when the see of Hildesheim was transferred to Hamburg), the ecclesiastical province has comprised the dioceses of Erfurt, Fulda, and Magdeburg. The first documentary mention of Paderborn as an imperial stronghold (the
Kaiserpfalz) dates from 777, in the context of an imperial diet held by Charlemagne. Charlemagne’s meeting with Pope Leo III in Paderborn in 799 produced an agreement concerning im…
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Religion Past and Present
Padmasambhava
(267 words)
[German Version] The Indian master and sage Padmasambhava (Sanskrit: “Lotus Born”; in Tibet also: ¶ Guru Rinpoche, “Precious Guru”) is the most significant figure connected with the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet in the 8th century; he is even considered its originator there. Although his character as a historical figure is not clear, Tibetan historical works and hagiographies paint a picture of a Tantric master (Tantra) responsible for subjugating the omnipresent demons and spirits of Tibet. According to…
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Religion Past and Present
Padre Cícero
(248 words)
[German Version] (Romão Baptista; Mar 24, 1844, Crato – Jul 20, 1934, Juazeiro), Brazilian priest. After his parents’ early death, he was brought up in the dry
sertão of the province of Ceará by pious aunts, who sent him to the seminary in the provincial capital of Fortaleza. At the age of 26 he was ordained priest and installed as chaplain in his home region, in Juazeiro, where he was given seven slaves to serve him. In a dream Jesus sent him to the poor. He thereupon freed his slaves and administered the sacraments with…
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Religion Past and Present
Padroado-Propaganda Conflict
(452 words)
[German Version] Padroado (Patronage) and Jus Patronatus are terms used to refer to the agreements between the popes and the sovereigns of Spain and Portugal (papal bulls of Pope Martin V and Romanus Pontifex [1455] of Pope Nicholas V), regarding the right to occupy the lands they discovered in exchange for the duty and privileges of supporting and administering Catholic missions in America, Africa, and Asia. Portugal was granted the right of presenting candidates for episcopal and other offices a…
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Religion Past and Present
Páez, Pedro
(441 words)
[German Version] (Pais, Pero; 1564, Olmeda, Spain – May 20, 1622, Gorgora, Ethiopia), entered the Jesuit order in 1582, studied in Coimbra, and in 1587 was chosen for mission. He traveled through Goa (1588–1589) and Hormuz (1589), was imprisoned in Sana’a, and did missionary work in India (1596–1601). From 1603 he was a missionary in Ethiopia, and until 1619 superior of the Ethiopian mission. In 1618 he was the first European to explore the source of the Nile, and in 1622 he baptized the emperor S…
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Religion Past and Present
Pafnuty of Borovsk, Saint
(182 words)
[German Version] (1394 Kudinovo – May 1, 1477, Borovsk). In 1414 Pafnuty entered the Vysotsky Monastery in Borovsk, founded in 1374 by a disciple of Sergius of Radonezh. In 1434 he was named hegumen of the monastery. In 1444 he resigned his office and founded a monastery outside of Borovsk dedicated to the nativity of the Theotokos. Because he supported Prince Dmitry Shemyaka (1420–1453) in the civil war that rocked Muscovy and quarreled with Jonas, the metropolitan of Moscow (died 1461), the Mosc…
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Religion Past and Present
Pagandom
(562 words)
[German Version] As a term in the systematic study of religion,
pagandom (like Ger.
Heidentum) is inappropriate, since it inherently conveys connotations of religious “otherness” and the truth of Christian theology. As a descriptive historical term, it is useful for religions of antiquity other than Judaism and Christianity when discussing their conflicts with Christianity; this is also the context in which the term originated. Initially the Latin equivalent
pagani served as a (pejorative) term describing the rural population (only recently converted to Christia…
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Religion Past and Present
Paganism
(2,417 words)
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. History – III. Missiology
I. Religious Studies Paganism (from Lat.
paganus “pagan, rustic, civilian”; Pagandom) is the modern scientific term for the deliberate resumption (“reception”) or revival (“revitalization,” “reconstruction”) of ancient or recent ethnic religious traditions or elements of them (Cults; myths, symbols) outside Christianity and biblical Judaism. Although the religious occupation of an outgroup is structurally conceivable in other exclusive religious ¶ communities, such as Judaism or Islam, paganism …
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Religion Past and Present
Pagninus, Santes
(110 words)
[German Version] (Santi Pagnini; Oct 18, 1470, Lucca – Aug 24, 1541, Lyon), Dominican friar who taught oriental languages in Rome; he was in Avignon from 1521 to 1524, and then in Lyon. He translated the Bible from the original languages into Latin (Lyon, 1527), with a strictly literal rendering of the Old Testament. He also wrote a Hebrew dictionary (Lyon, 1529) as well as extensive works on the OT. He followed ¶ Augustine in his emphasis on the mystical sense of Scripture. Siegfried Raeder Bibliography T.M. Centi, “L’attività letteraria di Santi Pagnini nel campo delle scienze bibliche,”
A…
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Religion Past and Present
Pagoda
(193 words)
[German Version] The Portuguese word “pagoda” was probably borrowed from Singhalese
dāgēba by way of a syllabic metathesis (corresponding to Sanskrit
dhātugarbha, “seed of the relic,” relic chamber; cf. Sanskrit
stūpa , Pāli
thūpa) and applied to the Buddhist places of worship in East and Southeast Asia (as in the case of Sanskrit
matrin, “minister”: mandarin). The East Asian languages, on the other hand, do not employ “pagoda” but terms that correspond to
stūpa, as for instance Chinese
ta. From the perspective of art history, the pagoda developed from the basic tumulus…
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Religion Past and Present
Pain
(743 words)
[German Version] Within the semantic field of the different modes of experiencing harm or ill-being, pain refers first of all to the sensation felt by the injured, sick, or unsound body (Suffering, Sickness and healing), but then also, and especially in poetic language, to the experiencing of separation, mourning and grief, and compassion (
Welt-Schmerz [v. Hartmann]). I. The history of pain research since J. Müller (
Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, vol. II, 1840; cf. N. Grahek, “Schmerz III. Naturwissenschaft und Medizin,”
HWP VIII, 1323–1330) has shown that pain repre…
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Religion Past and Present
Paine, Thomas
(216 words)
[German Version] ( Jan 29, 1737, Norfolk, England – Jun 8, 1809, NY), deist (Deism) and political agitator. His parents were Quakers. In 1774 he sailed for the American colonies, leaving behind him an unhappy marriage, unpaid debts, and a dubious reputation. In the New World his luck changed dramatically: his pamphlet
Common Sense (1776), the first public cry for American independence, was an instant success. He continued his work as a political polemicist with the
Crisis papers, written during the War of Independence, and
The Rights of Man (1792), an uncompromising defense of the…
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Religion Past and Present
Paisius Velichkovsky, Saint
(181 words)
[German Version] (Feb 21, 1722, Poltava, Ukraine – Nov 15, 1794, Neamţ, Romania), monk and saint of the Russian and Romanian Orthodox Church (feast day: Nov 15). Paisius Velichkovsky was the son of a Russian priest; he attended the Kiev Academy (but did not graduate). From 1746 onward he lived on Mount Athos, and from 1763 in Moldavia. He founded a monastery in Neamţ. Paisius also translated Greek patristic texts into Church Slavonic, notably the ¶ Philocalia (
Dobrotoljubie, 2 vols., 1793), and exerted a strong influence on the religious revivalism of the 19th century, a…
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Religion Past and Present
Paisiy of Khilendar
(162 words)
[German Version] (1722, Bansko/Pirin Mountains [?] – 1798 [?], Mount Athos), Bulgarian monk and scholar. Paisiy lived in the Khilendar monastery on Mount Athos from 1745, on whose behalf he journeyed throughout the Bulgarian territories. In 1762, he completed his
Slavonic-Bulgarian History (
Istorija Slavobolgarskaja), in which he described the Bulgarians’ glorious past in order to bolster their self-confidence and awaken their spirit of resistance against what he perceived as a threat of assimilation to Greek culture. In this work he als…
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Religion Past and Present
Pajon, Claude
(164 words)
[German Version] (1626, Romorantin, Département Loir-et-Cher – Sep 27, 1685, Carré, near Orléans). After studying theology at Saumur, Pajon was appointed pastor in Marchenoir in 1650; in 1666 he became professor of theology at Saumur. A pupil of M. Amyraut and J. Cameron, he supported their views concerning the doctrine of predestination and grace; he sought to escape condemnation by taking a pastorate in Orléans in 1668. Pajon made use of early Enlightenment tools to elucidate Reformed doctrine, …
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Religion Past and Present
Pakistan
(576 words)
[German Version] attained independence on Aug 14, 1947. This was preceded by bloody disputes between Hindus and Muslims in British India. In 1956 the country was proclaimed an Islamic republic. Civil war and the independence of Bangladesh from the former East Pakistan in 1971 dealt a severe blow to the ideology of Islamization. This process also led to ethnic and sectarian violence among Muslims and discriminatory and repressive laws against minorities. In 2000 the population of Pakistan was estim…
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Religion Past and Present
Palace
(2,340 words)
[German Version] I. From the Late Bronze Age to the Persian Period – II. Classical Antiquity – III. From the Middle Ages to the Present – IV. Early Islamic Palaces
I. From the Late Bronze Age to the Persian Period A palace was a large architectural complex that served as the ruler’s official residence. It constituted the administrative and cultural center of a city and its territory. In the Middle and Late Bronze Age, local princes of the city-states in Palestine resided in the numerous palaces. During the Middle and Late Bronze Ages,…
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Religion Past and Present
Palaeologus, Jacob
(170 words)
[German Version] (c. 1520, Chios island – 1585, Rome), radical Antitrinitarian who claimed to be descended from the last imperial dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. In trouble with the Inquisition as a Dominican friar in Italy, he was able to flee in 1559. He was in Prague in 1570/1571, in Krakow in 1571/1572, and in Klausenburg from 1572 to 1574. In 1573, he traveled to Turkey and twice to Poland. In 1575, Palaeologus lived in Alzen near Sibiu (Ger. Hermannstadt), Romania, then in Poland and Moravi…
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Religion Past and Present
Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de
(233 words)
[German Version] (Jun 24, 1600, Fitero, Navarre – Oct 1, 1659, El Burgo de Osma, Soria), Spanish Catholic theologian and politician. Following studies in Salamanca and his ordination to the priesthood in ¶ 1629, he was appointed crown attorney of the counsels of war and of the Indies (Consejo de Indias). He spent the years 1640–1649 in New Spain, where he briefly held the highest offices: viceroy, inspector general, and archbishop of Mexico in 1642, and bishop of Puebla de los Angeles from 1640 to 1655. He attempted to implemen…
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Religion Past and Present
Palamas, Gregory, Saint
(948 words)
[German Version] (1296, Constantinople – Sep 1, 1359, Thessalonica), the most important theologian of Hesychasm and father of Palamism (see below), still an influential school of Orthodox theology. At the age of 20, Palamas withdrew to Athos, where the Hesychast Nicodemus introduced him to the Jesus Prayer (Heart, Prayer of the). Palamas became a monk in the Great Laura, living as a solitary with Gregorios Sinaites as spiritual director. Fearing Turkish raids, he fled to Thessalonica, where he was…
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Religion Past and Present
Palatine Hill
(275 words)
[German Version] (
Palatium;
aedes Apollinis et Matris Magnae), one of the seven hills of Rome, located centrally between the Forum and the Tiber; site of several elements of the Romulus myth (suckling of the twins, auspices, founding of the city). The series of venerable cultic sites commemorating the early history of Rome (
lupercal, casa Romuli, Roma quadrata, scalae Caci) was expanded in 191 bce to include the temple of the
Mater Magna , whom Virgil (
Aen. 6.784–787) makes the tutelary deity of Aeneas. The
ludi Megalenses were held in her honor in the area before the temple and…
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Religion Past and Present
Paleography
(6,872 words)
[German Version] I. Paleography Today – II. Palestine – III. Texts
I. Paleography Today Paleography is the study of the development of writing; as an important element in codicology, it examines early forms of writing, particularly those of antiquity and the Middle Ages. The distinction between the use of ink and “epigraphic” writing is irrelevant. Writing is an empirical bridge between archaeology and the historical sciences (History/Concepts of history); it provides two starting points for paleography, one …
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Religion Past and Present
Palermo
(318 words)
[German Version] City on the northern coast of Sicily (2007 population 666,552), at the mouth of a beautiful, fertile valley known as early as the 4th century bce as ¶ the “garden” of Sicily and since the 16th century as the “Golden Shell.” The valley has been settled since the Paleolithic period. The city was founded in the 7th century bce by the Phoenicians (Phoenicia); it has always been a cultural crossroads. It was captured by the Romans in the First Punic War (254 bce), then later by the Goths. (440 ce), the Byzantines (536; Constantinople), the Arabs (831), the Normans (1072), …
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Religion Past and Present
Palestine
(6,836 words)
[German Version] I. Terminology – II. Geography – III. Archaeology – IV. History and Society – V. History of Religions
I. Terminology The area settled by the Philistines, referred to collectively in Akkadian by such names as
palaštu after their conquest by Assyria, probably provided the basis for the Greek (
Sýria hḗ)
Palaistínē, first found in Herodotus (1.105; 2.104, 106; 3.5, 91; 4.39; 7.89), even though the hypothetical intermediate Aramaic expression of the Persian period, the likely basis of the Greek form, is still unattested. To the exten…
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Religion Past and Present
Palestinian Missions (Palästinawerk)
(419 words)
[German Version] In 1947 the Lutheran World Federation took in trust the Protestant German institutions in the former Palestinian Mandate (Palestine). In 1951 the Palästinawerk was created as a body to represent the interests of the Protestant German organizations that had operated in Palestine before World War II, partially expropriated by the State of Israel. Its members were the Evangelische Jerusalem-Stiftung (Church of the Redeemer), the Jerusalemsverein (Protestant Arab missionary churches a…
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Religion Past and Present
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da
(658 words)
[German Version] (between 3 Feb, 1525 and 2 Feb, 1526, Palestrina – 2 Feb 1593, Rome), Italian composer. Palestrina, toponymously named after his birthplace near Rome, was trained as a choirboy at S. Maria Maggiore in Rome in the 1530s and from 1544 to 1551 worked as an organist in his hometown. In 1551, he was appointed
magister cantorum at the chapel of St. Peter’s (the “Cappella Giulia”); in 1555 Pope Julius III made him singer at the Papal Chapel. After Julius’s death in the same year and Marcellus II’s three-week reign, however, their archconserva…
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Religion Past and Present
Paley, William
(318 words)
[German Version] (Jul, 1743, Peterborough, UK – May 25, 1805, Lincoln, UK), Anglican theologian, who was educated by his father and then studied at Cambridge before being elected Fellow of Christ’s College there in 1766. In his first book
The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785), which later became a favorite educational resource, Paley outlined a system of utilitarian ethics (Utilitarianism; see also England, Theology in) in which he anticipated many of the themes of his contemporary, J. Bentham). Paley proved great originality in his
Horae Paulinae (1790) in which…
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Religion Past and Present
Palimpsest
(342 words)
[German Version] The term
palimpsest (Lat.
palimpsestus from Gk
pálin psáō, “rub smooth again”), first attested in the works of Cicero and Catullus, denotes a reused manuscript (Lat.
codex rescriptus). The original text on parchment, the scarce and expensive standard writing material of the Middle Ages, was removed with a sponge, pumice stone, erasing knife, or by bleaching with lye to make room for a new text, parallel or perpendicular to ¶ the original. Reuse of papyrus was also common. Both pagan and Christian texts fell victim to the process – often those that w…
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Religion Past and Present
Palladius of Helenopolis
(170 words)
[German Version] (363/364, Galatia – before 431) lived as a monk in Palestine and Egypt from 386/387 onward. As bishop of Helenopolis (from 399/400), Palladius was drawn into the conflict over John Chrysostom and banished to Upper Egypt from 406 to 412. Thereafter he was appointed bishop of Aspuna. His
Dialogue on the Life of John Chrysostom (CPG 3, 6037; see also Hagiography: II), which was probably written in 408, is an importance source for Chrysostom’s biography. The
Lives of the Holy Fathers (or
Historia Lausiaca, CPG 6036; see also Monasticism: III, 1.c and
Historia monachorum …
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Religion Past and Present
Palladius, Peder
(131 words)
[German Version] (1503, Ribe, Jutland – 1560, Copenhagen), Lutheran reformer of Denmark. After studying in Wittenberg (Dr.theol., 1537), Palladius was charged with the double office of superintendent (bishop) of Zealand and professor in the newly founded university of Copenhagen, in addition to carrying through the Reformation. He made an inestimable contribution as a leader in building up the Protestant church and education. His great ability in the areas of administration and educational method …
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Religion Past and Present
Palladius (Saint)
(216 words)
[German Version]
Palladius (Saint), Celtic bishop, most probably from Gaul, who served as bishop of Ireland. The scope of his activities remains uncertain, owing in particular to an early confusion with the mission of Patrick. The chronicle written by Prosper of Aquitaine (MGH.AA 9, 473) mentions Palladius in 429 as missionary to Ireland, and then in 431 as the first bishop of the Christian Irish. In Rome, it was apparently feared that Christianity in Ireland, which had already gained a foothold in…
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Religion Past and Present
Pallavicino, Pietro Sforza
(344 words)
[German Version] (Nov 28, 1607, Rome – Jun 5, 1667, Rome), cardinal, polymath, and historian of the Council of Trent. After studying theology at the Collegium Romanum, Pallavicino first pursued a successful career in church administration (
Referendarius utriusque signaturae; member of various congregations including the
Sanctum Officium [Inquisition] andthe commission to assess the writings of C. Jansen). In 1632 he fell out of favor with Urban VIII and became ¶ governor of Jesi, Orvieto, and Camerino. His entry in 1637 into the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) enabled …
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Religion Past and Present
Pallium
(145 words)
[German Version]
Pallium, a circular stole worn on the shoulders over the mass robe, made of white wool decorated with black silk crosses, with a short strip with a black end hanging over the chest and the back (Vestments, Liturgical). It presumably developed from the sash worn by Roman officials in late imperial times, and from the early 6th century the pope has been entitled to wear this liturgical vestment. From the 9th century he bestowed it on archbishops, who, however, were allowed to wear i…
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Religion Past and Present
Pallottines
(343 words)
[German Version] (Society of the Catholic Apostolate,
Societas Apostolatus Catholici), founded in 1835 by St. Vincent Pallotti (1795–1850) in Rome as a community of priests and brothers, in order to spread and deepen faith. Its members take no vows, but promise to live in ¶ community according to the counsels of perfection, for a limited time, or permanently. Clergy promise furthermore not to seek church honors, or to accept them without permission. From 1854 to 1947 the society was known as the
Pia Societas Missionum. It has missions in the Cameroon (1890), southern Brazil, no…
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Religion Past and Present
Pallu, François
(382 words)
[German Version] (Aug 30, 1626, Tours, France – Oct 29, 1684, Moyang, China). After his episcopal ordination in Rome on Nov 17, 1658, Pallu became vicar apostolic of Tonkin (the northern region of Vietnam). Back in Paris, two years later he founded the Société des Missions Étrangères de Paris to support missionary work. In 1664 Pallu left for Siam (Thailand) where he met Pierre Lambert de la Motte (1624–1679), vicar apostolic of Cochinchina (the southern region of Vietnam). The two bishops prepare…
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Religion Past and Present
Palmer, Christian David Friedrich
(219 words)
[German Version] (Jan 27, 1811, Winnenden – May 29, 1875, Tübingen), professor of practical theology and ethics. Palmer came from a Pietist family. From 1828 to 1833 he studied theology in Tübingen, from 1834 to 1836 he was a private tutor in Bissingen and Plieningen, from 1836 tutor at the Protestant college in Tübingen, and from 1839 a deacon in Marbach. From 1843 he was deacon in Tübingen, and at the same time lecturer in pedagogics at Tübingen University, where in 1852 he was appointed to the …
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Religion Past and Present
Palmer, Phoebe Worrall
(139 words)
[German Version] (Dec 18, 1807, New York – Nov 2, 1874, New York), lay leader, author, revivalist, and practical theologian of the 19th century Methodist Holiness Movement. To Palmer, sanctification involved an ongoing consecration to God after conversion that brought with it an awareness of being saved or kept from all sin. Palmer offered a “shorter way” to attain this spiritual state, and her teachings made holiness accessible to ordinary people. Palmer promoted her ideas through her weekly
Tuesday Meetings for the Promotion of Holiness, through popular books, through tours i…
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Religion Past and Present
Palmer, Samuel
(137 words)
[German Version] (Jan 27, 1805, London, UK – May 24, 1881, Redhill, Surrey, UK) is most famous for the visionary pictures of an English pastoral paradise which he produced between 1826 and 1835 while living in the village of Shoreham in Kent. He knew and revered W. Blake, and from the tiny country scenes in the corners of Blake’s
Illuminated Books Palmer developed his own richly stylized vision of close-packed, abundant orchards and sheepfolds, often lit by a low, gold crescent moon. Unlike Blake he was devoutly Anglican and will often show the tip of a …
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Religion Past and Present
Palmyra
(587 words)
[German Version] (Sem. Tadmor), oasis watered by a major spring (Efqa), on an important caravan route in the Syrian desert between the Euphrates (Dura-Europos) and the cities and towns in the west (Hama, Homs, Damascus) and along the coast. The earliest traces of human settlement (some 75,000 years old) were found in the cave of Douara. Settlement on the hill beside the spring began c. 7000 bce. Tadmor is mentioned in 2nd-millennium texts from Kültepe, Mari, and Emar. Since c. 300 bce, Palmyra must have been a very significant site, as evidenced by ongoing excavations. In 41 bce Palmyra cam…
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Religion Past and Present