On Islamic learning in Wadai, see Issa H. Khayar, Le refus de I’école. Contribution à l’étude de l’éducation chez les musulmans du Ouaddaï (Tchad), Paris, 1976, esp. ch. 3, “L’enseignement pré-coloniale”; id., Tchad. Regards sur les élites ouaddaïennes, Paris, 1984; David E. Gardinier, “Muḥammad Awuda Oulech at Abeche: a reformist Islamic challenge to French and traditionalist interests in Ouddai, Chad, 1947-1956”, ISSS, iii (1989), 159-85. See also ALA I, 50.

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