Throughout Iranian history, the position of female musicians has constantly been challenged by conservative religious attitudes because of the belief that women and music have a great power over the minds of men. Female musicians, however, have been among the most important entertainers at courts from pre-Islamic times up to the beginning of the twenty-first century; their presence is well represented in Persian art and poetry.

While during the Achaemenid period (558–330 B.C.E.) female dancers, instrumentalists, acrobats and jugglers entertained guests at the bazm (feast) (Huy…