The labor movement and trade unions in Iran began in the early twentieth century. They have not been homogeneous institutions; some have had grassroots support and some have been agents of the state. They survived long periods of authoritarian regimes. At different historical periods their actions have confirmed a profound reactivation of civil society (Bayat 1987, Ladjevardi 1985). However, they remained male dominated organizations. In 2003, 30 percent of formal sector workers in state enterprises and 6 percent of formal sector workers in privat…