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Insān

(2,108 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.), man ( homo ). The Ḳurʾān states ¶ that God created man weak (IV, 28). Several verses describe his psychology: in trouble he cries to God, and when the trouble has passed, he forgets (X, 12; XXXIX, 8 and 49); he is very unjust ( ẓalūm , XIV, 34; XXXIII, 72); much inclined to be precipitate ( ʿad̲j̲ūl XVII, 11); versatile ( halūʿ , LXX, 19); rebellious (XLVI, 6); a subtle reasoner and given to argument (XVIII, 54, XXXVI, 77). The LA echoes this Ḳurʾānic teaching: all beings who are endowed with intelligence, angels and d̲j̲inns, are given to argument, but man is more so t…

Sabab

(2,063 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R. | Izzi Dien, Mawil Y. | Heinrichs, W.P. | Carter, M.G.
(a.), pl. asbāb , literally "rope" ( ḥabl ), the basic sense as given by the lexicographers (cf. LʿA ), coming to designate anything which binds or connects. It is "anything by means of which one gains an end ( maḳṣūd ; al-Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ānī) or an object sought" ( maṭlūb ; in the Baḥr al-d̲j̲awāhir ). One can mention asbāb with the sense of "bonds" in Ḳurʾān, II, 166: "When the bonds [which unite them] are broken...". Ibn ʿAbbās interpreted this as friendship ( mawadda ); Mud̲j̲āhid, "alliance" ( tawāṣul ) in this context. The sense is also found of "a means of achi…

Is̲h̲rāḳ

(1,083 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
the name given to illuminative Wisdom, advocated by S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī (d. 587/1191) who himself indicated its sources (cf. table). By “sources” should be understood not so much the historical origins of his ideas as the springing forth of a Wisdom which, in the fieid of mysticism, has inspired lines of initiates comparable with the initiatory isnād s of the Ṣūfīs, though without the explicit granting of any “delegation” by the Masters to the disciples. However that may be, one can discern Western, Greek elements, as well…

Ibn Ḥazm

(10,362 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, Abū Muḥammad ʿAlī b. Aḥmad b. Saʿīd , born at Cordova in 384/994, died at Manta Līs̲h̲am in 456/1064, Andalusian poet, historian, jurist, philosopher and theologian, one of the greatest thinkers of Arabo-Muslim civilization, who codified the Ẓāhirī [see ẓāhiriyya ] doctrine and applied its method to all the Ḳurʾānic sciences. The life of Ibn Ḥazm and the political events of his time. E. García Gómez has pointed out that the period in which Ibn Ḥazm lived corresponds to the “most tragic moments of Muslim Spain” and to “the decisive crisis of Isl…

Manṭiḳ

(13,716 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.), a technical term denoting logic. 1. Etymology. The LA gives manṭiḳ as a synonym of kalām in the sense of “language”; a book is described as being nāṭiḳ bayyin as if it does itself speak; God says in the Ḳurʾān (XXII, 62): “And before Us is a Book which tells the truth ( yanṭiḳu bi ’l-ḥaḳḳ )”. This telling of the truth also has a quality of judgment; thus (XLV, 29): “This is Our Book; it pronounces against you in all truth ( yanṭiḳu ʿalaykum bi ’l-ḥaḳḳ )” Metaphorically, manṭiḳ expresses the language of all things, for example the language of birds (Ḳurʾān, XXVII, 16: manṭiḳ al-ṭayr

Iḥdāt̲h̲

(1,711 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, maṣdar of aḥdat̲h̲a , from the root . t̲h̲ ., which expresses the idea of an innovation in time. Ḥadīt̲h̲ is the opposite of ḳadīm , “ancient”, whence “eternal” a parte ante; ḥudūt̲h̲ is the opposite of ḳudma . In the Ḳurʾān the fourth form ( yuḥdit̲h̲ , muḥdat̲h̲ ) is used with the direct object d̲h̲ikr . Commenting on XX, 113, Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn al-Rāzī considers why the Word of God produces a d̲h̲ikr and not a taḳwā ; the reason, he suggests, is that “ taḳwā denotes the act of not doing evil, and it consists in remaining in a fundamental negativeness” ( wa-d̲h̲ālika ‘stimrār ʿala ’l-ʿadam al-aṣlī

Hayʾa

(1,294 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.), synonym (see LA; TA) for ‘shape’ ( s̲h̲akl ) and ‘form’ ( ṣūra ), and also for ‘state’ ( ḥāl ) and quality’ ( kayfiyya ). Al-Kindī states that, according to Hippocrates, one of the meanings of the word “nature’ applies to the configuration ( hayʾa ) of the human body. In the Rasāʾil Ik̲h̲wān al-Ṣafaʾ we find: hayʾat al-arkān : the configuration of the elements; they use this word also to discuss the thesis of the materialists who think that the Living and All-powerful Being is a body, since he exists in a configuration that is distinguished by accidents, such as life, power, knowledge ( ʿalā ha…

Maʿād

(2,619 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.), place of return, a technical term in religious and philosophical vocabulary. The verb ʿadā , ʿawdan signifies “to return to a place”. Al-D̲j̲awharī treats it as a synonym of rad̲j̲aʿa . The action of ʿawd is the movement whereby one. returns to the point of departure: rad̲j̲aʿa ʿalā badʾihi , or ilā ḥāfiratihi , either through a continuous progress, in describing a circle for example, or stopping at a certain point and retracing one’s steps (cf. Sībawayh, cited by LA), whence the idea of a return to the origin, to the source. The verb rad̲j̲aʿa is used in many Ḳurʾānic verses to ind…

Ḥaraka wa-Sukūn

(4,461 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R. | Fleisch, H.
“motion and rest”, a technical expression used, on the one hand, in philosophy and theology, and, on the other, in grammar. I.—Philosophy and Theology I.—The Falāsifa take the Greek theories for their base. Thus al-Kindī exactly reproduces Aristotle’s thought when he writes, like him linking time and motion, that time is a duration that is counted by motion ( mudda taʿudduhā ’l-ḥaraka- , cf. Phys . IV, 219 b: ἀριθμός κινήσεως ...ὁ δὲ χρόνος ὲστι τὸ ἀριθμούμενον, that is to say that time is the counted ¶ number of motion). Furthermore, al-Kindī knows the famous formula: time is th…

Māhiyya

(3,090 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(A.) “quiddity”. On the construction of this technical term, al-Tahānawī provides interesting information. There are several explanations. One of them derives this word from the interrogative mā huwa? (“what is it?”). In this case, it is to be noted that the yāʾ of the nisba has been added, the wāw suppressed and the tāʾ marbūṭa termination given in order to change the word from the adjectival to the substantive form. Another explanation derives it from , with the addition of the yāʾ of the nisba and of the tāʾ marbūṭa. The original form would then be māʾiyya ; the hamza

Falsafa

(6,538 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
1.—Origins. The origins of falsafa are purely Greek; the activity of the falāsifa [ q.v.] begins with Arabic translations of the Greek philosophical texts (whether direct or through a Syriac intermediary). Thus falsafa\appears first as the continuation of φιλοσοφία in Muslim surroundings. But this definition leads at once to a more precise formulation: since strictly orthodox Sunnī Islam has never welcomed philosophic thought, falsafa developed from the first especially among thinkers influenced by the sects, and particularly by the S̲h̲īʿa; and this arose …

al-Insān al-Kāmil

(3,347 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
the Perfect Man. 1). General observations on this concept. The idea of the Perfect Man, which occurs in Muslim esoteric mysticism, is not derived directly from the Ḳurʾān. It may be compared with gnostic conceptions which have assumed various forms: that of the πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος linked with Hermetism (cf. Poimandres ) and the hellenistic gnoses, might be the purest original source; another origin may be found in the Mazdaean myth of Gayomart, the primordial Man. These two currents come together in Manichaeism with the doctrine of the first Man ( al-insān al-ḳadīm ) …

Is̲h̲rāḳiyyūn

(767 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, adepts of illuminative Wisdom. The question arises whether this term can be applied to the representatives of the spiritual family to which Suhrawardī belonged, who preceded him in time. If that were so, the “Hermetists”, the “Sethists” who, from the 4th century in Egypt, saw in Seth (S̲h̲īth) the first uriya (from the Hebrew ōr = light), the sages of Persia, disciples of Zarathustra, and the Manichaeans would already be is̲h̲rāḳiyyūn . H. Corbin has recorded a text of Ibn Waḥs̲h̲iyya, relating to Hermes-Thoth of ancient Egypt, in which the word figures. The disco…

Ḥayāt

(1,636 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.), life. The Ḳurʾān mentions life in very many verses. God is Himself living ( ḥayy ), see II, 255; XL, 65, etc. Al-Ṭabarī writes, in his Tafsīr (ed. Dār al-Maʿārif, v, 386): “This word ḥayy describes Him who has perpetual ( dāʾima ) life and a permanent existence ( baḳāʾ ) without any initial or terminal limit, for everything that is not He, although it be living, has a life that begins at a definite point and ends at a fixed limit”. On this, he says, all the commentators are agreed. They differ on other questions. For …

Ibn Zuhr

(3,359 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, patronymic of a family of scholars who came originally from Arabia (Iyād) and settled, at the beginning of the 4th/10th century, at D̲j̲afu S̲h̲āṭiba (Játiva) in the east of Spain. Ibn K̲h̲allikān says of the members of this family that they were “all ʿulamāʾ , ruʾasāʾ , ḥukamāʾ and viziers who reached high ranks in the entourages of princes”. I. Zuhr al-Iyādī was the father of Marwān, who was the father of Abū Bakr Muḥammad, who was famous as a jurisconsult; he died at Talabīra (Talavera) in 422/1030-1. II. Abū Marwān ʿAbd al-Malik b. Muḥammad b. Marwān b. Zuhr al-Iyādī …

Ḳidam

(5,061 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.) in the technical vocabulary of philosophy and theology denotes eternity. It must be distinguished from azal and from abad [ q.v.]. Al-Tāhānawī writes: “ Azal is the constant duration of existence in the past, as abad is its constant duration in the future.” As opposed to temporal origin ( ḥudūt̲h̲ ), it is the fact of having been preceded by nothing else ( al-lā masbūḳiyya bil-g̲h̲ayr ): azal implies the negation of a first beginning ( nafy al-awwaliyya ); it is therefore a case of eternity a parte ante, and abad is eternity a parte post. Azal and abad are essentially identical in God ( inna a…

Ḳuwwa

(4,214 words)

Author(s): Boer, Tj. de | Arnaldez, R.
(pl. Ḳuwā ), Arabic term denoting “strength, power”. 1. Lexicographical study. Ibn Sīda defined the word ḳuwwa as the opposite of weakness ( naḳīd al-ḍaʿf ), cf. Ḳurʾān XXX, 54: “It is God who has created you from weakness ( min ḍaʿf ) and who then, after weakness, has given you strength ( ḳuwwa )”. It is thus the concept of strength and of vigour which is paramount. A man is described as ḳawī when he is strong in himself, and as muḳwī when he owns a robust mount. On the other hand, like the word ṭāḳa (which also has the sense of “ability to act”), ḳuwwa denotes a thread which is part of a rope. As …

Maʿrifa

(3,857 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
(a.) “Knowledge, cognition”. 1. as a term of epistemology and mysticism I. Lexicographical study. Like ʿirfān , the word maʿrifa is a noun derived from the verb ʿarafa . According to the lexicographers, it is a synonym of ʿilm [ q.v.]. Ibn Manẓūr ( LA) notes that ʿarafa may be used in place of iʿtarafa (“to recognise”), in the sense that maʿrifa is that which enables a person to recogriise, to identify a thing. On the other hand, iʿtarafa signifies “to ask somebody for information ( k̲h̲abar ) regarding something”. It is the reply which makes recognition of t…

Ibn Masarra

(4,438 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Masarra al-D̲j̲abalī , Andalusian philosopher and mystic, born at Cordova in 269/883 and died in 319/931 in a hermitage on the Sierra near this town, to which he had retired long before. He lived during a period in which Muslim Spain suffered a veritable inquisition conducted by the Mālikī fuḳahāʾ . His father, ʿAbd Allāh, who may have been of Christian descent, was a Muʿtazilī and in order to teach his doctrines had to take many precautions. The young Muḥammad became his pupil and received from him a…

al-Muḥāsibī

(1,205 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R.
, Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥārit̲h̲ (d. 243/857), Muslim mystic. Amongst these, he is the one whose contemplation is the most psychological; it is marked by attachment to moral values, and not by a more or less extreme ¶ theological system. In this sense, L. Massignon has legitimately described his mystical doctrine as “more circumspect” ( Passion 2, i, 120). He proceeds from introspection and confines himself to analysing and developing it in its relations with the circumstances of life. It is no doubt this which explains his cognomen of muḥāsibī , signifying “he who …
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