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The use of paşa ( pāşā) as an Ottoman title emerged immediately after the reign of Osman I (ʿOthmān I, d. c. 724/1324), contrary to previous honorific designations used for upper dignitaries, such as emir (emīr), bey (beg), mirimiran (mīrimīrān), and vezir ( vezīr, vizier). This is probably one of the reasons why its etymology has been a matter of debate. According to Jean Deny, it probably derived from padişah ( pādishāh, emperor), with the possible influence of baskak ( bāsqāq, agent, tax collector), as suggested by Gerhard Doerfer. Alternative theories claim that it is a…

Fehim Süleyman (Fehīm Süleymān) (1203–63/1788–9–1847) was an Ottoman poet who also served as a state official and worked as a teacher. Born in Istanbul, he was nicknamed “İstanbuli” or “Hoca.” He gained his erudition from self-study, as well as by his involvement in artistic circles and the scribal environment. He was a protégé of İsmail Ferruh (İsmāʿīl Ferrukh) Efendi (d. 1840), one of the best teachers of Persian in the capital, and he benefited greatly from his patron’s diplomatic contacts and…

The bostancıbaşı (in Ottoman orthography, būstāncībāşī) was the commander of the ocak (corps) of the bostancıs (gardeners). He was recruited exclusively from his own corps; the first known holders of the office were generally taken from among the kethüdas ( ketkhudā, chamberlain), and from the second half of the eleventh/seventeenth century, the post was given to the haseki ağa (khāṣekī āghā, lieutenant of the bostancıbaşı). The kanunname (qānūnnāme) of Sultan Mehmed (Meḥmed) II (r. 848–50/1444–6 and 855–86/1451–81) notes that the bostancıbaşı, the attendant of gardens both in Istanbul and Edirne, was highly proficient in carrying out inspections and surveillance. He supervised the tasks of workers recruited to build ships and construct new imperial reside…

Defterdar (“record keeper”) was an office in the financial administration of the Ottoman Empire, whose functions became increasingly important between the end of the eighth/fourteenth and the middle of the ninth/fifteenth century. The term was developed as an extension of the financial office of the mustawfī in the states of the mediaeval Near East. The terms başdefterdar ( başdefterdār, chief financial administrator) and defterdars (lower-level treasury officials) are ment…

The Turkish term efendi (efendī) derives from the Greek authentēs (αύθέντης, “to act on one’s own authority”). In Western sources, it is often translated as “lord,” “master,” or “sir.” Placed at the end of a noun phrase (e.g., Mehmed Emin [Meḥmed Emīn] Efendi), it can also be appended to another title (e.g., for men, bey/beg, paşa; for women, hanım/khānım), or linked to a position or function ( katib/kātib, imam/imām). Historically, it was used to address the Ottoman sultan (padişahımız efendimiz hazretleri/ḥazretleri)…

The grand vizier, vezir-i azam ( vezīr-i āʿẓam, “the greatest of the viziers”), or, from the mid-tenth/sixteenth century, sadrazam (ṣadr āʿẓam), was the second highest-ranking figure in the Ottoman state. Initially, grand viziers were selected from among the ulema (ʿulamāʾ), and they were given considerable authority during the reign of Orhan (Orkhān, r. c. 726–63/1326–62). Later, other dignitaries shared the rank of vizier, and although the grand vizier’s entitlements were reduced, command of the military was added to his responsibilities. The kanunname (qānūnnāme) of Mehmed (Meḥmed) II (r. 848–50/1444–6 and 855–86/1451–81) raised the grand vizier to the status of the sultan’s vekil-i mutlak ( vekīl-i muṭ…