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, the name now commonly given to the ruins of the capital city of the Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.] empire, on the right bank of the Tungabhadrā river 60 km. north-west of Bellary. The name seems to be derived from the prominent temple to Pampāpati (Kannad́a h < Old Kann. p) in the bāzār area. The Vid̲j̲ayanagara empire is of importance for the Muslim world not only as an active Hindū power which defied its Muslim neighbours for over two centuries, but also for the evidence it offers of the progressive synthesis of certain aspects of Hindū and Muslim cul…

, Pačpiriyā , followers of the Five Saints, Urdu pānč pīr , especially in northern and eastern India, whose myths and legends (there is no real historicity or hagiology about them) are attached to a primitive form of shrine worship with as many Hindū as Muslim adherents (Kipling in Kim , ch. 4, speaks of the “wayside shrines—sometimes Hindu, sometimes Mussulman—which the low caste of both creeds share with beautiful impartiality”. For “caste” among the lower grades of Muslim society see hind. ii, Ethnography). They have no formal organisation, and belong to the general north…

, a district in south-central India (the ‘Deccan’, [ q.v.]), and the headquarters town of that district, lat. 17° 55ʹ N., long. 77° 32ʹ E., population over 15,000, 82 miles north-west of Ḥaydarābād from which it is easily accessible by road and rail. The identification of Bīdar with the ancient Vidarbha (Briggs’s Ferishta , ii, 411) is now discounted, cf. G. Yazdani, Bidar : its history and monuments, Oxford 1947, 3. Bīdar was included in the Čālukya kingdom of Kalyāń, 4th-6th/10th-12th centuries, but was in the hands of the Kākatīyās of Warangal when conquered…

, modern spelling Nagaur, Nagor, a town and district in the division of Jodhpur in the Rajasthan state of the Indian Union, formerly within the princely state of Jodhpur in British India; the town lies in lat. 27° 12′ N. and long. 73° 48′ E. at 75 miles/120 km. to the northeast of Jodhpur [see d̲j̲ōdhpur ], and in 1971 had a population of 36,433. The walled town is said to have derived its name from its traditional founders, the Nāga Rād̲j̲puts. In the later 12th century it was controlled by the Čawhān (Čahamāna) ruler of Dihlī Pṛithvīrād̲j̲a III, then by the G̲h̲ūrid Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad [see g̲h̲…

b. ʿAlī s̲h̲arīf al-Ḳurays̲h̲ī al-Nāgōrī , whose dates of birth and death are unknown, wrote his Ḳānūn-i Islām at the instigation of Dr. Herklots some time before 1832. He is said to have been “a man of low origin and of no account in ¶ his own country”, born at Uppuēlūru (Ellore) in Kistna District, Madras, and was employed as a muns̲h̲ī in the service of the Madras government. He was an orthodox Sunnī, yet tolerant towards the S̲h̲īʿas, who had considerable influence in south India in his time, learned yet objective in his approach…

1. — History. The city of Dihlī, situated on the west bank of the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.] and now spread out between 28° 30′ and 28° 44′ N. and 77° 5′ and 77° 15′ E., was the capital of the earliest Muslim rulers of India from 608/1211 (see dihlī sultanate ), and remained the capital of the northern dynasties (with occasional exceptions: Dawlatābād, Agra, and Lahore (Lāhawr), [ qq.v.], were the centres favoured by some rulers) until the deposition of Bahādur S̲h̲āh in 1858; from 1911 it became the capital of British India, and after 1947 of Independent India. The usual Romanized form of the nam…

, a small town about 40 km. east of Āt́ak, Pākistān, 33° 48′ N., 72° 44′ E., which forms a part of the ruins around the ancient Taxila. It is known as the site of a spring which has attracted legends of sanctity from Buddhist, Hindū, Muslim and Sikh sources, and in its form of the sacred tank ¶ of the Serpent King Ēlāpatra was described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century A.D. It is now known by Muslims as the spring of Bābā Walī, and by the Sikhs as that of Pand̲j̲ā Ṣāḥib (Pand̲j̲ābī pand̲j̲ā ‘group of five (sc. fingers)’, i.e., ‘hand’), from the shape of a mark on a rock from un…

i.—A small town in Uttar Pradēs̲h̲, India, 27° 32′ N., 80° 45′ E., 75 km. north of Lakhnaʾū (Lucknow) on the Barēlī road, now of small importance but in Mug̲h̲al times the headquarters of one of the five sarkār s of the sūba of Awadh (Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī, Āʾīn-i Akbarī , Eng. tr. Jarrett, Bibl. Ind., ii, 93, 176). Under the kingdom of Awadh [ q.v.] it became the headquarters town of a niẓāmat ; but after the British annexation of Awadh its importance declined with the rise of Sītāpur 8 km. to the north. Before the partition of the Indian subconti…

, a town of the Indian Pand̲j̲āb, situated 29° 7′ N., 76° 0′ E., in the Hariyānā [ q.v.] region of which it was the old capital until supplanted by Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in 757/1356. It is known from inscriptions that it was occupied by the Tomārs and Čawhāns before the Muslim conquest, and was perhaps occupied from Kus̲h̲āṇa times, 1st or 2nd century A.D.: certainly the old fort, to the north-east of the present town, is an extensive tell representing an accumulation of many cultural layers. Hānsī was already a major stronghold when Masʿūd, son of Maḥm…

(a.), pl. nuḳabāʾ , “chief, leader”, of a tribe or other group, a term used in various senses at different times of Islamic history. For its sense as head of the community of ʿAlid descendants, see naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf . 1. In early Islamic history. One of the term’s usages in early Islamic history is in connection with the preparatory stages of the ʿAbbāsid Revolution of 129-32/746-50. The term naḳīb had already established itself in the story of the Prophet Muḥammad’s career, when the Medinans negotiating with him about the hid̲j̲ra from Mecca to Medina were asked to appoint 12 nuḳabāʾ as repr…

, the name given in the Indian chronicles to the south-western region of Rād̲j̲āsthān [ q.v.]: approximately the region now known, from its principal town, as Udaypur (although the town of Udaypur [ q.v.] was not founded until 966/1559), hilly with considerable forest tracts, separated from its Rād̲j̲pūt neighbour Mārwāŕ on the west by the Aravallī hills, and bordered on the south by Gud̲j̲arāt, on the south-east and east by Mālwā, on the north-east by the Dihlī sultanate (see Map s.v. rād̲j̲āsthān ). The region is more celebrated for its defences agains…

, the name of many towns and cities in India (Skr. nagara “city”). Those of significance for Islam are as follows: 1. Nagar, familiar name locally for Aḥmadnagar [ q.v.], being even used on signposts. C.R. Singhal, Mint-towns of the Mughal emperors of India , Bombay 1953, 7, describes a coin of typical Aḥmadnagar fabric where the mint-name is simply Nagar. 2. Nagar, a large town in Karnāt́aka, some 55 miles west of S̲h̲imōgā, once a capital of local rād̲j̲ās , captured in 1176/1763 by Ḥaydar ʿAlī [ q.v.], and so for a short time known as Ḥaydarnagar; Ḥaydar ʿAlī ¶ established his principal ars…

, a Persian title abbreviated from the Arab amīr and approximating in meaning both to it and to the title mīrzā [ q.v.]. (For the dropping of the initial alif cf. Bū Sahl for Abū Sahl, etc.). Like amīr the title is applied to princes (Manūčihrī, ed. A. de Biberstein-Kazimirsky, ¶ Menoutchehri , poète persan du onzième siècle de notre ère , Paris 1886, 96, speaks of Sultan Masʿūd of G̲h̲azna, as “Mīr”), but it is also borne by poets and other men of letters (e.g. Mīr ʿAlī S̲h̲īr, Mīr K̲h̲wānd, Mīr Muḥsin; cf. the following arts.). In India and Pakistan, Sayyids sometimes call themselv…

(a.), active participle from the form IV verb as̲h̲rafa , literally “overseer, supervisor, controller”, the title of an official who appears at various times and with various duties in the history of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate and its successor states, from the Mag̲h̲rib to the eastern Islamic lands. 1. In the Arab and Persian lands. ¶ The office of is̲h̲rāf seems basically to have been a financial one. The supervision of financial operations was in the first century or so of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate usually entrusted to the dīwān al-zimām/al-azimma [see dīwān. i. The caliphate]; in the re…

, name given to the tract of country in the Indian Pand̲j̲āb to the north-west of Dihlī, surrounding the towns of Hānsī [ q.v.] and Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in the present Ḥiṣār district and extending east into the Rohtak [ q.v.] district; it lies south of the Ghaggar stream—which partly coincides with the ancient Saraswatī river which once joined the Indus [see sindhu ], now little more than a monsoon drainage channel whose waters are lost in the Rād̲j̲āst̲h̲ān sands—and is traversed by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ’s West Ḏj̲amnā canal [for the history of this see references s.v. d̲j̲amnā …

, the name commonly given by Indian historians to a turbulent family of Tīmūrid descent, troublesome especially in the 10th/16th century, in the reign of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, to whom they were mostly sixth cousins, as descendants of ʿUmar S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Mīrzā, the second son of Tīmūr (Akbar was descended from D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Mīrān S̲h̲āh. the third son of Tīmūr). Abu ‘l-Faḍl and Badāuʾnī refer to them as mīrzāyān , and Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī al-Dābir as awlād Mīrzā Muḥammad Tīmūr Sulṭān . There may be confusion in the texts when one of them is spoken of in th…

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn Aḥmad , also called Ḳuṭb D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn, a Ṣūfī mystic of the Indian Čis̲h̲tiyya [ q.v.] order, b. 580/1184-5, d. in. Hānsī 659/1260-1. He was a descendant of the theologian and religious lawyer Abū Ḥanīfa, and was a senior k̲h̲alīfa of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd al-Dīn Masʿūd “Gand̲j̲-i S̲h̲akar” [ q.v.] during the time the latter spent at Hānsī [ q.v.]. He is said to have been the k̲h̲aṭīb of Hānsī when he joined Farīd al-Dīn, and to have resigned this post and its consequent material benefits as a necessary condition of his spiritual discipline. He is known as the aut…

(a.), literally “ranks, degrees” (sing. martaba ), a term applied especially in Muslim India to the “honours” or “dignities”, aṭbāl wa- ʿalamāt , drums and standards, borne by the sultan or conferred by him on the great amīrs (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, iii, 106; tr. Gibb (1971), iii, 599), later elaborated (ibid., iii, 110; tr. iii, 601) as “standards, kettledrums, trumpets, bugles and reedpipes” as carried by two ¶ ships among the fifteen of the governor of Lāharī Bandar. The practice of Fīrūz S̲h̲ah’s troops marching with 90,000 cavalry under 180 marātib and nis̲h̲āna-yi har d̲j̲ins (ʿAfīf, Taʾrīk̲h…

( et́ājā ), a district in the south-west of Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, lying between 26° 21′ and 27° 1′. N., 78° 45′ E.; and also the principal town of that district, 26° 46′ N., 79° 1′ E., on the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.]. The common spelling of the name is Etawa; other forms are Etaya (Elphinstone), Itay (de Laet), and sometimes Int́āwa in the Muslim chronicles. Popular etymology connects the name with īnt́ āwā , “brick kiln”. The region of It́āwā was probably within the kingdom of Kanawd̲j̲ [ q.v.] at the time of the raid on that kingdom by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna in 409/1018, and again at …

A line of eighteen Muslim sultans who ruled, or claimed to rule, in the Deccan from 748-933/1347-1527, after a group of Muslim nobles led by Ismāʿīl Muk̲h̲ had successtally rebelled against the sultan of Dihlī, Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ. The more vigorous Ḥasan Gangu supplanted Ismāʿīl and was proclaimed Sulṭān ʿAlā al-Dīn Ḥasan Bahman S̲h̲āh. (On the latter’s origin see Major W. Haig, Some Notes on the Bahmanī Dynasty , A SB LXXIII Pt. 1 (Extra No.) 1904, 463; Proceedings of Indian History Congress , 1938, 304-8; H. K. Sherwani, Gangu Bahmani , in Journal of Indian History …