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Waṣl

(696 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a.), a term of Arabic grammar broadly denoting juncture, i.e. a syntactic or phonological “connecting”; it is thus the antonym of both interruption ( ḳaṭʿ [ q.v.]) and pause ( waḳf [ q.v.]). ¶ Its origin is probably in Ḳurʾān recitation, where the choice of proceeding to the next word without a break depends mainly on syntactic or semantic considerations, the text being marked accordingly with signs for optional, preferable or compulsory waṣl . The term occurs most commonly in the phrase alif al-waṣl , alternatively, but less transparently, hamzat al-waṣl, referring to the prosthetic ali…

Tamt̲h̲īl

(665 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G. | Gelder, G.J.H van
(a.), literally “the adducing of a likeness, example; representation”. 1. In grammar. Here, it is used in various senses. As a denominative from mat̲h̲al “example”, it denotes the citing of examples and the technique of definition by exemplification (cf. Versteegh, 59, n. 8), while from mat̲h̲al in the extended meaning of “proverb”, it denotes the creation or use of such expressions; thus the phrase ʿalayhi māl un is called a tamt̲h̲īl by al-Mubarrad [ q.v.] ( al-Muḳtaḍab , i, 51) “because [the debt] has got on top of him”, a usage which clearly overlaps with tamt̲h̲īl in rhetoric. As a deno…

Sabab

(2,063 words)

Author(s): Arnaldez, R. | Izzi Dien, Mawil Y. | Heinrichs, W.P. | Carter, M.G.
(a.), pl. asbāb , literally "rope" ( ḥabl ), the basic sense as given by the lexicographers (cf. LʿA ), coming to designate anything which binds or connects. It is "anything by means of which one gains an end ( maḳṣūd ; al-Ḏj̲urd̲j̲ānī) or an object sought" ( maṭlūb ; in the Baḥr al-d̲j̲awāhir ). One can mention asbāb with the sense of "bonds" in Ḳurʾān, II, 166: "When the bonds [which unite them] are broken...". Ibn ʿAbbās interpreted this as friendship ( mawadda ); Mud̲j̲āhid, "alliance" ( tawāṣul ) in this context. The sense is also found of "a means of achi…

Uṣūl

(2,704 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a.), lit. “origins, roots”, a term of Arabic grammar. Here, the applications of this term can broadly be divided into two categories, (i) most frequently in the singular aṣl , denoting a basic form, concept or structure, and (ii) exclusively in the plural, denoting the fundamental principles of grammar as a science. The singular aṣl has a wide range of meanings extending over phonology, morphology and syntax (Baalbaki; Bohas, etc. 1990, index) conveniendy summarised in Kinberg’s Lexicon of al-Farrāʾ (s.v. aṣl) as “the original vocalization, form, construction, meaning, wri…

Taʿrīf

(813 words)

Author(s): Miller, L.B. | Carter, M.G.
(a.), lit. “making known”, hence “definition”. 1. As a term in logic. Ibn Sīnā appears to have been the first philosopher to use the word taʿrīf as a general term for definition that encompasses both “Aristotelian definition” ( ḥadd [ q.v.]) and descriptive definition, rasm , Gr. ύπογραφή Ibn Sīnā defines taʿrīf more generally as “an intentional act, by means of speech or sign, that causes the person perceiving it to conceive of the thing defined” huwa an yaḳṣida fiʿl al-s̲h̲ayʾ id̲h̲ā s̲h̲aʿara bihi s̲h̲āʿir taṣawwara s̲h̲ayʾan-mā huwa ’l-muʿarraf wa-d̲h̲ālika ’l-fiʿl …

Ẓarf

(482 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a., pl. ẓurūf ), lit. “vessel, container”, in grammar denotes a subset of nouns of place or time in the dependent ( naṣb , vulgo “accusative”) form indicating when or where the event occurs, e.g. d̲j̲alastu yawm-a-n warāʾ-a-hu “I sat one day behind him”. Because of their dependent form, the Arab grammarians classify them as objects of the verb, specifically as the “object of location”, mafʿūl fīhi , lit. “thing in which something is done”. Neither of the western terms “adverb” or “preposition” can properly be applied to these elements, wh…

Lafẓ

(1,061 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G. | van Ess, J.
(a.), lit: “to spit out” (see WbKAS , letter L, ii/2, 989). 1. In grammar. Here it denotes primarily the actual expression of a sound or series of sounds, hence “articulation” and, more broadly, the resulting “linguistic form”. It has ¶ always been distinct from ṣawt “[individual] sound” (cf. Troupeau, ṣ-w-t , and see Bakalla, 39 ff. and 49 ff., for its use in Ibn D̲j̲innī (d. 392/1002 [ q.v.]), which provides the base for the modern Arabic terms for phonetics, ʿilm al-aṣwāt , and phonology, ʿilm waẓāʾif al-aṣwāt (and note also the neologism ṣawtiyya [ q.v.] for ¶ the collective description …

Ṣaḥīḥ

(1,384 words)

Author(s): Juynboll, G.H.A. | Peters, R. | Carter, M.G.
(a.), literally, “sound, healthy”. 1. As a technical term in the science of ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.], i.e. Muslim tradition. It did not come into use immediately with the onset of isnād criticism, for al-Rāmahurmuzī (d. 360/970 [ q.v.]), who wrote the first systematic work on ḥadīt̲h̲, does not seem to have applied it yet. It is used by mediaeval as well as modern Muslim tradition experts (sometimes followed in this by some western scholars) to describe or qualify one particular prophetic tradition or a whole collection of such traditions. Ṣaḥīḥ traditions constitute o…

Ṭāhir b. Aḥmad b. Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲

(443 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
, Abu ’l-Ḥasan, al-Naḥwī al-Miṣrī, the most important Egyptian grammarian of his time, usually referred to as Ibn Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲ , d. 469/1077. Of Daylamī origins, his father or grandfather set up in Cairo, where, after an interlude in ʿIrāḳ trading in precious stones, Ibn Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲ found well-paid employment as a kātib in the Dīwān al-ins̲h̲āʾ , as well as presiding over Ḳurʾān recitation at the mosque of ʿAmr. He died in a fall from the minaret of this mosque, in which he had secluded himself for some time in a pious aband…

Tafḍīl

(517 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a.), literally “superiority, the act of raising something to a higher level or degree”. In grammar, it is the raising of a quality to a degree combining both the “comparative” and “superlative” functions of European adjectives, hence usually translated as “elative”. Formally, the elative has the patterns afʿal u (masc.) and fuʿlā (fem.) with sound plurals (also afāʿil u and fuʿal u respectively), in an obvious but still unexplained parallelism with the colour and defect adjective patterns afʿal u and faʿlāʾu . The origins of the patterns remain obscure: Wehr, 598 ff. (summa…

S̲h̲arṭ

(2,360 words)

Author(s): Hallaq, Wael B. | Netton, I.R. | Carter, M.G.
(pls. s̲h̲urūṭ , s̲h̲arāʾiṭ ), literally, “condition”. 1. In Islamic law. Here, it has the sense of “condition, term, stipulation”. The term has two major connotations. Generally, it denotes that which does not partake in the quiddity of a thing but upon which the existence of that thing hinges. Ritual cleansing ( ṭahāra ), for instance, is not a constitutive part of prayer ( ṣalāt ) but it is a condition for its validity. In legal theory ( uṣūl al-fiḳh ), s̲h̲arṭ signifies a condition in verifying the ratio legis, the ʿilla . S̲h̲arṭ requires the ruling ( ḥukm ) to be n…

Sībawayhi

(8,215 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
, pioneer Arabic grammarian, the author of a single, untitled work, known only as Kitāb Sībawayhi and acknowledged as the founding text of Arabic grammatical science. All else, his name, origins, dates and originality, is uncertain, Sībawayhi having died too young and too far away from the cultural centres of ʿIrāḳ to establish himself in the scholarly biographical tradition. 1. Life and teachers. (a) Life . Sībawayhi’s name is usually given as Abū Bis̲h̲r ʿAmr b. ʿUt̲h̲mān b. Ḳanbar, mawlā of Banū Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Kaʿb Sībawayhi. Humbert (1995, 3-8) discu…

Uṣūl

(2,862 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a.), lit. «origines, racines», terme de grammaire arabe. Ici, on peut diviser grosso modo les applications de ce terme en deux catégories: (I) le plus souvent au singulier, aṣl désigne une forme, un concept, une structure, de base, et (II) exclusivement au pluriel, il indique les principes fondamentaux de la grammaire en tant que science. Le singulier aṣl offre un large éventail de significations couvrant la phonologie, la morphologie et la syntaxe (Baalbaki; Bohas, etc. 1990, index) résumé par Kinberg de façon pratique dans le Lexicon d’al-Farrāʾ (s.v. aṣl) comme étant «la vocali…

Ẓarf

(504 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
(a., pl. ẓurūf), litt. «récipient (vaisseau), contenant», en grammaire désigne un sous-ensemble de noms de lieu ou de temps, de forme subordonnée ( naṣb, «accusatif»), qui indique quand et où se passe l’événement, par ex. d̲j̲alastu yawm-a-n warāʾ-a-hu «je me suis assis un jour derrière lui». A cause de leur forme subordonnée, les grammairiens arabes les classent comme des compléments du verbe, en particulier comme l’«objet de lieu», mafʿūl fīhi, litt. «chose dans laquelle quelque chose est accompli». Aucun des termes occidentaux «adverbe» ou «préposition» ne peu…

Tafḍīl

(504 words)

Author(s): Carter, M. G.
(a.), littéralement «supériorité, action d’élever quelque chose à un plus haut degré». En grammaire, c’est le fait d’élever une qualité à un degré combinant à la fois les fonctions du «comparatif» et du «superlatif» des adjectifs des langues européennes, et donc traduit en général par «élatif». L’élatif est formé sur les schèmes afʿalu (masc) et fuʿlā (fém.) avec des pluriels sains (plus afaʿilu ), calqués de façon évidente mais non expliquée sur les schèmes des adjectifs de couleurs et de défauts afʿalu et faʿlāu . Les origines des schèmes demeurent obscures: Wehr, 598 sq. (ré…

Waṣl

(750 words)

Author(s): Carter, M. G.
(a.), terme de grammaire arabe désignant en gros joncture c.-à-d. «liaison» syntaxique ou phonologique; c’est donc à la fois l’antonyme de “interruption” ( ḳaṭʿ [ q.v.]) et de “pause” ( waḳf [ q.v.]). Son origine est probablement dans la récitation du rCur’ân, où le choix d’enchaîner avec le mot suivant sans marquer d’arrêt dépend principalement de raisons syntaxiques ou sémantiques, le texte portant les signes adéquats selon que le waṣl est facultatif, préférable ou obligatoire. Ce terme apparaît très couramment dans l’expression alif al-waṣl, avec l’alternative, hamzat al-waṣl, …

Lafẓ

(1,110 words)

Author(s): Carter, M. G. | van Ess, J.
(a.), litt: «cracher» (voir WbKAS, lettre L, II/2, 989). 1. En grammaire. Il désigne ici principalement l’émission même d’un son ou d’une série de sons, d’où «articulation» et, plus largement la «forme linguistique» qui en résulte. On l’a toujours distingué de ṣawt «son [individuel]» (voir Troupeau, s-w-t, et Bakalla, 39 et suiv. et 49 et suiv., pour son emploi dans Ibn Ḏj̲innī (m. en 392/1002 [ q.v.]), qui sert de fondement, en arabe moderne, pour les termes de phonétique, ʿ ilm al-aṣwāt, et de phonologie, ʿ ilm waẓāʾif al-aṣwāt (et noter également le néologisme ṣawtiyya [ q.v.] pour la d…

Ṣaḥīḥ

(1,326 words)

Author(s): Juynboll, G.H.A. | Peters, R. | Carter, M. G.
(a.), litt. sain, en bonne santé. 1. Comme terme technique de la science du ḥadīt̲h̲. Il n’est pas entré dans l’usage dès l’instauration de la critique de l’ isnād, car al-Rāmahurmuzī (m. 360/970 [ q.v.]), auteur du premier ouvrage systématique sur le ḥadīt̲h̲, ne semble pas encore l’employer. Il est utilisé par les spécialistes médiévaux ou modernes de la tradition islamique (parfois suivis par des savants occidentaux) pour décrire ou qualifier une tradition prophétique particulière, ou un recueil entier de ces traditions. Les traditions ṣaḥīḥ constituent l’une des trois grand…

Ṭāhir b. Aḥmad b. Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲

(439 words)

Author(s): Carter, M.G.
, Abū l-Ḥasan, al-Naḥwī al-Miṣrī, le plus grand grammairien égyptien de son temps, habituellement appelé Ibn Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲ (m. 469/1077). D’origine daylamite, son père ou son grand-père s’établit au Caire, où après un intermède en ʿIrāḳ comme marchand de pierres précieuses, Ibn Bābas̲h̲ād̲h̲ trouva un emploi confortable comme kātib au dīwān al-ins̲h̲āʾ, et comme directeur de la récitation ḳurʾānique à la mosquée de ʿAmr. Il mourut en tombant du minaret de cette mosquée, après s’y être livré quelque temps à une pieuse réclusion, abandonnant son …

Taʿrīf

(843 words)

Author(s): Miller, L. B. | Carter, M. G.
(a.), littéralement «faire connaître» d’où «définition». 1. Terme de logique. Ibn Sīnā semble avoir été le premier philosophe à employer le mot taʿrīf comme terme général pour «définition» qui comprend à la fois la «définition aristotélicienne» ( ḥadd [ q.v.]) et la «définition descriptive», rasm, du grec ὑπογραφή. Ibn Sīnā définit taʿrīf généralement comme «un acte intentionnel, par la parole ou le geste, qui fait comprendre à la personne qui le perçoit la chose définie» huwa an yaḳṣida fiʿl al-s̲h̲ayʾ id̲h̲ā s̲h̲aʿara bihi s̲h̲āʿir taṣawwara s̲h̲ayʾan mā huwwa l-muʿarraf wa-d̲…
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