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Mit R. bezeichnet man seit dem letzten Drittel des 19. Jh.s das Ziel relig.-polit. Anstrengungen, dem Rückgang des gelebten und des öffentlich präsenten Christentums, d. h. der Säkularisierung und Dechristianisierung Europas und Nordamerikas, sowie auch der Religionskritik zu begegnen [1]; [3]. Allerdings war die relig. Entwicklung schon bald nach der Reformation von religiösen Reformbewegungen geprägt, denen die kirchenkritische Diagnose zugrunde lag, dass das Christentum weithin nur als Namenschristentum oder rechte Lehre existiere, nicht aber…

Der Begriff M. (von lat. modo, »soeben«, »jetzt«; vgl. Moderne) weist eine enorme Bedeutungsbreite und eine spezifische histor. Tiefendimension auf. Seit Mitte des 19. Jh.s steht er für Positionen in Literatur, Kunst, Musik und Architektur, doch dominiert der kirchliche Kontext seiner Verwendung.In Fortführung der schon antiken Opposition des »Alten« gegen das (wirklich oder vermeintlich) »Neue« begann sich seit dem frühen MA die Prägung modernus als Kennzeichnung einer Gegenwart durchzusetzen, die dem Vergangenen überlegen sein will (vgl. Moderne). Seit dem 10. Jh. bi…

1. BegriffeDer Begriff T. (von lat. transcendere, »überschreiten«; »hinüberschreiten«) ist stets mit dem Gegenbegriff I. verbunden (von lat. immanere, »darinbleiben«, zuerst als mlat. immanentia belegt). T. bezeichnet das Hinausgehen über eine Grenze, I. das Gegenteil – zwei anthropologische Konstanten. Der Mensch vermag sich selbst und seine Umwelt intentional zu transzendieren, ebenso wie er bei sich und in seiner Welt bleiben wollen kann. T. ist ein Ausdruck für die wie auch immer begründete Annahme, dass etwas über den Me…

Der Versuch, Massenerscheinungen zahlenmäßig, d. h. statistisch, zu erfassen, lässt sich in den Hochkulturen bis in das 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. zurückverfolgen. In der Nz. entwickelte sich die Statistik auf verschiedenen Gebieten (z. B. im 17. Jh. die Universitätsstatistik, dann die politische Arithmetik). Grundlegend war das Bemühen, gesetzmäßige Strukturen zu erfassen – ein Anliegen, das im theologischen Bereich, aufklärerischem Duktus folgend, in einen Gottesbeweis münden konnte [3].Bereits die ma. Verwaltungen kommunalen und kirchlichen Zuschnitts lief…

1. Begriff»B.« bildet, wie die eng verwandte »Bibelwissenschaft«, den Oberbegriff für die methodengeleitete, kritische Exegese (die Auslegung alt- und neutestamentlicher kanonisch-biblischer Texte sowie auch apokrypher und deuterokanonischer (i. e. dem nur in der Septuaginta überlieferten Kanon angehörender) Schriften. Im Rückgriff auf Prinzipien der antiken Philologie bildete sich in der Nz. ein festes historisch-kritisches Methodeninstrumentarium heraus (Textkritik; Historische Methode). Seine Auslegungsgrun…

Attempts to record mass phenomena in numbers, that is, statistically, go all the way back to the high cultures of the 3rd millennium BCE. In the modern period statistics developed in various areas (e.g. in university statistics in the 17th century, then political arithmetic). Basic to this were efforts to record legal structures - a concern which, under Enlightenment influence, was to lead in the theological field to proofs of the existence of God [3].The medieval administrations of a communal and ecclesiastical character provide comprehensive material for historic…

1. ConceptsThe term “transcendence” (from the Latin  transcendere, “to surmount”; “to rise above”) is invariably associated with its antithesis, immanence (from the Latin  immanere, “to dwell [with]in,” first attested as Middle Latin immanentia). Transcendence means the escaping beyond a boundary, and immanence the opposite. These are thus two anthropological constants. Individuals are capable of intentionally transcending themselves and their environment, and equally of remaining within themselves and their world. Transcend…

The term “modernism” (from the Latin  modo, “just now”, “presently”) covers a wide spectrum of meaning and a specific historical dimension of depth. It has denoted positions in literature, art, and architecture since the mid-19th century, but its dominant use has been in ecclesiastical contexts.Continuing the opposition of the “old” and the (truly or purportedly) “new” that began in antiquity, the neologism modernus began in the early Middle Ages to be used to refer to a present aspiring to be superior to the past (cf. Late modern period). From the 10th ce…

1. Concept “Biblical criticism”, like the related “biblical scholarship,” is the umbrella term for method-led critical exegesis, the interpretation of Old and New Testament canonical biblical texts as well as apocryphal and deuterocanonical writings (i.e. the canon transmitted only in the Septuagint). Using principles of ancient philology, a solid historical-critical set of methodological tools formed from this in the modern period (Textual criticism; Historical method). Its interpretative premise…

The term rechristianization denotes the goal of religio-political efforts beginning in the last third of the 19th century to counter the decline of lived and publicly present Christianity – that is, secularization and dechristianization of Europe and North America, together with criticism of religion (Religion, critique of) [1]; [3]. This religious development, however, was already shaped by religious reform movements beginning soon after the Reformation – which were based on the critical diagnosis that Christianity existed largely as …

[German Version] (Nov 22, 1865, Mainz – Apr 8, 1923, Munich), studied law, history, and archaeology in Munich, without completing a degree or any later professional activity. From 1897 to 1904, he and Karl Wolfkehl, L. Klages, and S. George (whose “cult of Maximin” he influenced) formed the core of the Kosmiker (“Cosmics”) in Schwabing. At the heart of his anti-Semitic elitist ideology, which combined the most diverse elements – from apocalypticism and light mysticism to J.J. Bachofen and F. Nietzsche – was a Neo-Pagan attempt at repristination …

[German Version] (Mar 14, 1808, Murten – Jul 3, 1888, Zürich). Following his examinations and ordination, Schweizer did an additional year of study in Berlin. Deeply impressed by F.D.E. Schleiermacher, Schweizer became one of his few students to carry on his work productively. He was appointed associate professor of practical theology in Zürich in 1835 and was promoted to full professor in 1840; after 1844 he also served as pastor of the Großmünster. From a consistent Reformed perspective, he advo…

[German Version] (Apr 26, 1780, Hohenstein – Jun 20, 1860, Munich). After gymnasial studies in Weimar, where he was strongly influenced by J.G. Herder, and study of theology at Leipzig, Schubert changed his field and went to Jena, where he received his Dr.med. in 1803; he then began to practice in Altenburg. In 1805 he began studies at the mining academy in Freiberg. In 1809 …

[German Version] (Aug 21, 1796, Oldesloe – Sep 4, 1839, Erlangen), Protestant theologian. From 1814 Olshausen studied in Kiel, then in 1816 in Berlin, where he became a tutor in 1818 and lecturer in 1820. He was influenced by F.D.E. Schleiermacher, and then especially by A. Neander. He became an associate professor in Königsberg in 1821, and in 1827 a full professor of New Testament studies. His Pietist devotion (Pietism) led him to become a member of the circle of Johann Wilhelm Ebel and Heinrich…

[German Version] (Sep 21, 1787, Borna – Aug 21, 1868, Berlin). After studying at Wittenberg, he served as a pastor beginning in 1811; in addition to his pastoral duties, in 1817 he was appointed professor at the seminary in Wittenberg. From 1820 to 1822, he served as provost and superintendent in Kemberg. He received his Dr.theol. h.c. from Berlin in 1817. From 1822 to 1847, he taught at Bonn as professor of systematic and practical theology; he was also university preacher, and quickly became an influential figure within the faculty and in the church. His major work on systematics was his Syst…

[German Version] (Dec 12, 1827, Wissust, Livonia – Aug 20, 1906, Dorpat), Protestant theologian; 1856–1890 full professor of sys-¶ tematic theology in Dorpat. In addition to numerous shorter occasional writings ( Ueber akuten und chronischen Selbstmord, 1881) and a traditionally oriented outline of dogmatics ( Lutherische Dogmatik, 3 vols., 1897–1902), it is Oettingen’s lasting merit to have coined the term social ethics in his work Die Moralstatistik und die christliche Sittenlehre. Versuch einer Socialethik auf empirischer Grundlage (2 vols., 1868, 1873; 3rd ed. 1882 …

[German Version] (Dec 2, 1883, Langenstein, near Halberstadt – Jun 2, 1959, Kassel). Beginning in 1903, Schafft studied theology in Halle, Berlin, and Tübingen; after 1907 he took on various church functions and pastoral ministries, with an emphasis on social service. He was P. Tillich’s closest friend and supported Tillich’s concept of a religious socialism (Religious socialists) based on the elements of autonomy, heteronomy, and theonomy. He was a leading advocate of the Neuwerk movement; the focus of his journalistic work was the periodical Neuwerk, which he edited after 193…

[German Version] (Dec 17, 1825, Stuttgart – Nov 17, 1878, Gießen), was a tutor in Tübingen from ¶ 1851 to1855, and after working as pastor, he became associate professor of New Testament in Zürich in 1860 and professor in Gießen in 1873. He made a name for himself especially through his works on the history of the Reformation in Württemberg. Under the influence of his teachers F. Baur and G. Ewald, he then devoted himself to the NT, giving particular consideration to the Early Church. His influential main opus Geschichte Jesu von Nazara (3 vols., 1867–1872) placed him in the tradition …

[German Version] (Nov 16, 1803, Lüthorst, Solling – Jan 8, 1873, Hannover). After studying at Göttingen from 1824 to 1827, Petri became a pastoral assistant at the Church of the Cross in Hannover, where (giving up his academic career) he was appointed junior pastor in 1837 and senior pastor in 1851. In 1843 he received an honorary doctorate from Erlangen. A theological high churchman, he was one of the most significant figures associated with Neo-Lutheranism. He had affinities with the revival mov…

[German Version] (Jan 22, 1814, Kleinbottward [now part of Steinheim an der Murr] – Mar 19, 1908, Stuttgart) began studying philosophy in 1831 at Tübingen, then changed to theology and found in F.C. Baur a teacher who left a deep impression on him. He received his doctorate in 1836, was appointed lecturer in 1840, and in 1847 became an associate professor of theology at Bern. In 1849 he received a call to a full professorship at Marburg. The administration, however, forced him to move to the philosophical faculty. He taught in Heidelberg from 1862 to 1872 and in Berlin from 1872 to 1894. His Philo…