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( ʿAbd al-G̲h̲affār ), a descendant of Mūsā, brother of the Ṣūfī Ibrāhīm Dasūḳī (see the preceding article) born in 1226/1811 in a poor family following the Mālikī ritual. After completing his elementary education in his native place of Dasūḳ, he attended the lectures of distinguished S̲h̲ayk̲h̲s at the Azhar Mosque, among whom was the celebrated Mālikī Muḥammad ʿIllīs̲h̲ (d. 1299/1882). After himself lecturing in the Azhar for a short time, he entered the employment of the st…

(a.), literally: "determination, resolution, fixed purpose"; thence: ¶ 1. In religious law, an ordinance as interpreted strictly, the opposite of ruk̲h̲ṣa , an exemption or dispensation (e.g. the dispensation from observing the dietary laws, if there is danger to health or life). ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-S̲h̲aʿrānī, in his Kitāb al-Mīzān al-Kubrā , consistently explains the divergent opinions of the several schools of religious law as expressing these two complementary tendencies. Cf. Goldziher, in ZDMG, 1884, 676 f.; idem, Die Ẓâhiriten , Leipzig 1884, 68 f. 2. In magic, an adjuratio…

, a branch of the S̲h̲īʿī “exaggerators” ( g̲h̲ulāt [ q.v.]). Its adherents believed that ʿAlī and Muḥammad were so like in physical features as to be confused, as like “as one crow ( g̲h̲urāb ) is to another” (a proverbial expression for great similarity, cf. Zeitschr. f. Assyr ., xvii, 53), so that the Angel Gabriel when commissioned by God to bring the revelation to ʿAlī gave it in mistake to Muḥammad. ʿAlī was, they say, appointed by God to be a Prophet and Muḥammad only became one through a mistake. According to Ibn …

(a.; sing, hawā , "predilection, inclination of the soul"; comp. Ḳurʾān vi, 151) is a term applied by the orthodox theologians to those followers of Islām, whose religious tenets in certain details deviate from the general ordinances of the Sunnite confession (cf. ZDMG, 1898, 159). As examples there are mentioned: Ḏj̲abariyya, Ḳadariyya, Rawāfiḍ, Ḵh̲awārid̲j̲, anthropomorphists, Muʿaṭṭila. From the above definition it may be inferred that in the sense of Muslim theology it is not proper to designate these tendencies as sects. (I. Goldziher)

(“intelligence, knowledge”) is the name given to jurisprudence in Islām. It is, like the jurisprudentia of the Romans, rerum divinarum atque kumanarum notilia and in its widest sense covers all aspects of religious, political and civil life. In addition to the laws regulating ritual and religious observances ( ʿibādāt), as far as concerns performance and abstinence, it includes the whole field of family law, the law of inheritance, of property and of contract, in a word provisions for all the legal questions that arise in social life ( muʿāmalāt); it also includes criminal law and …

(a.) a name applied with reference to Ḳorʾān xlv. 23 (where it is said of the unbelievers: And they say: “There is no other than our present life; we die and we live and nothing but the course of time ( al-dahr) destroyeth us”) ¶ to those people who not content with repudiating the belief in one God, the creation of the world by Him and His Providence, and denying the postulates of any positive religion (divine laws, a future life, retribution), teach the eternity of time and of matter and ascribe all that happens in the world merely to t…

is an individual mentioned in the Ḳorʾān 21, 85, 38, 48, in connection with a series of prophets, whose identity is wrapped in uncertainty. The Muslim commentators have only a very hazy conception of him and hesitatingly identify him with various people, chiefly Biblical personages like Joshua, Elijah, Zachariah, or Ezekiel. Ḏh̲u ’l-Kifl is a name of the prophet just as four other prophets have two names (Yaʿḳūb: Isrāʾīl; Yūnus: Ḏh̲u ’l-Nūn; ʿĪsā: al-Masīḥ; Muḥammad: Aḥmad). The view is more definitely ¶ advanced (Ṭabarī, Annales, i. 364, Mud̲j̲īr al-Dīn, al-Uns al-Ḏj̲alīl, p. 68), t…

, a branch of the S̲h̲īʿī “exaggerators” ( g̲h̲ulāt q. v.). Its adherents believe that ʿAlī and Muḥammad were so like in physical features as to be confused, as like “as one raven ( g̲h̲urāb) is to another” (a proverbial expression for great similarity, cf. Zeitschr. f. Assyr., xvii. 53), so that the Angel Gabriel when commissioned by God to bring the revelation to ʿAlī gave it in mistake to Muḥammad. ʿAlī was, they say, appointed by God to be a Prophet and Muḥammad only became one through a mistake. It is related that in the fourth century a. h. the holders of this view in Ḳumm raised a seri…

(a.) Permission, a technical term in the science of Tradition, the permission granted to any one by a competent “carrier” of a text or even a whole book — whether it is the latter’s own or an older text which he is able to trace back by a reliable chain of transmittors to the original trànsmittor or to the author — to transmit further the work, and to quote the trànsmittor as an authority. The id̲j̲āza does not require immediate contact between the person receiving the permission and him who grants it. And there is a difference of opinion as to what formula has to acco…

, al-Saiyid Muḥammad b. Ṣafdar, one of the most remarkable figures in the Muslim world in the xixth century. He was — in the opinion of E. G. Browne — at once philosopher, author, orator and journalist, but above all he was a politician regarded by his opponents as a dangerous agitator. He exercised great influence on the liberationist and constitutional movements, which have arisen in Muḥammadan countries in the last few decades. He agitated for their liberation from European influence and exploitation, for the…

(a.; plur. of badal, „substitute“), one of the degrees in the Ṣūfī hierarchical order of saints, who, unknown by the masses ( rid̲j̲āl al-g̲h̲aib), participate by means of their powerful influence in the preservation of the arrangement of the universe. The different accounts in the Ṣūfī literature disagree as to the details about this hierarchy. According to the most generally accepted opinion, the Abdāl, forty in number, take the fifth place in the saints’ hierarchy issuing from the great Ḳuṭb [q. v.]. They are preceded after the Ḳuṭb by: 2) both assistants of the latter ( al-imāmān); 3) …

, (a.; p., t. and others Ādat, Ādet = habit, custom), a legal term designating a prescriptive right, which is, in Islāmic countries, independently of the cononical law ( s̲h̲arīʿa), made ¶ current in those juridical cases which are not closely connected with the religious ordinances. The practical validity of this right, which often is in disagreement with the theologically established law, divided in many countries the jurisdiction into a spiritual and a secular one. We are now in possession of several collections of ʿāda laws. In literature, ʿāda is sometimes substituted by the term ʿur…

, al-Saiyid Ibrāhīm b. Ibrāhīm (ʿAbd al-G̲h̲affār), a descendant of Mūsā, brother ¶ of the Ṣūfī Ibrāhīm Dasūḳī (see the next article) born in 1226 = 1811 in a poor family following the Mālikī ritual. After completing his elementary education in his native place of Dasūḳ, he attended the lectures of distinguished S̲h̲aik̲h̲s at the Azhar Mosque, among whom was the celebrated Mālikī Muḥammad ʿIllēs̲h̲ (died 1299 = 1882). After himself lecturing in the Azhar for a short time, he entered the employment of the s…

(a.; coll.) in opposition to ʿArab „foreigner“, „non-Arab“. We find already in pre-Islāmic poetry this designation for non-Arabs (more frequently, however, in the form Aʿd̲j̲am, pl. Aʿād̲j̲im), and namely not only for Persians; the latter, whose usages and customs are mentioned in pre-Islāmic poetry, are in such cases mostly designated as Fārisī. Later on the appellation of ʿAd̲j̲am was preferably used to designate the Persians, and even now in geographical nomenclature ʿAd̲j̲am designates Persia. Although Islām taught the equal worth of Arabs and non-Arabs, yet th…

, the dwarf, a nickname originally given in contempt to the Arab poet Ḏj̲arwal b. Aws, who belonged to the Muk̲h̲aḍramūn [q. v.]. His genealogy was despised; he had cause to attach himself sometimes to the ʿAbs clan and sometimes to the Ḏh̲uhl. The date of the commencement of his poetical activities is usually antedated in an impossible fashion by literary tradition; he was most probably a younger contemporary of ʿUrwa b. al-Ward [q. v.]. He was converted to Islām but his religion was very superficial. In the reign of Abū Bakr he took part in the Ridda [q. v.] rising. His character is very …

(a.), the prayer ( duʿāʾ) of a man who has not yet made up his mind, in order to be inspired with a salutary decision regarding an intended enterprise, a journey, etc. This term is connected with the first conjugation of the verb , especially in its use in phrases like Allāhumma k̲h̲ir li-rasūlika (Ṭabarī, Annales, i. 1832, 6); k̲h̲ir lahu (Ibn Saʿd, ii. 11, 73 11, 75, 2); k̲h̲āra ’llāhu Iī (ibid., viii. 92, 25). The proverb istak̲h̲ir allāha fi ’l-samā’i yak̲h̲ir laka bi-ʿilmihi fi ’l-kaḍāʾi (Ibn Saʿd, viii. 171, 18; Ḳālī, Amālī, ii. 106 paen.) is even given from the pre-Islāmic period, b…

(a.), a term meaning, in both the heathen and the Islāmic times, the noble and humane tendency of the character and its manifestation in the conduct of life and social intercourse. There is a well-known aphorism, also frequently occurring in the Ḥadīt̲h̲: kāda’l-adab an yakūn t̲h̲ult̲h̲ayi’l-dīn („it can almost be asserted that adab equals two thirds of religion“). Parallelly to this practical designation of this word there is also a metaphorical one: the knowledge that leads to an intellectual culture of a higher degree and enables a more refine…

(a.), in dogmatics, immunity from error and sin, such as is ascribed in Sunnī Islām to the prophets and in the S̲h̲īʿa to the imāms also. As to the extent of their immunity, the orthodox theologians differ in opinion as regards the prophets except Muḥammad (on such points as ¶ whether it also exists before or only after their prophetic calling or whether it includes immunity from all kinds of sin or only applies to minor slips). It is applied in unlimited fashion to Muḥammad only, in opposition to his own judgement. Among Sunn! authorities Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn al-Rāzī in particular extends the ʿiṣma t…

(a.), „term, goal of life“, the period decreed by God for individuals as well as for whole classes and totalities, a term which can neither be shortened nor lengthened (Ḳorʾān, vii. 32, x. 50, xvi. 63, xxix. 53, lxxi. 4).„Neither is the life of him who is made to live prolonged nor is anything diminished from his life, but (what is written) in a book (of Allāh’s decrees)“ (xxxv. 12). The ad̲j̲al is not shortened even through sinning (xxxv. 44, xlii. 13), while on the other hand it may be concluded that Muḥammed presupposed the shortening of the ad̲j̲al as a punishment, but it might be restor…

, philosopher: he who studies falsa fa [q. v. p. 48 et seq.]; thence frequently used as an epithet for deep thinkers. The Arab philologists know the literal meaning of this word as muḥibb al-ḥihma (lover of wisdom). Al-Kindī [q. v.] was preferably known as the failasūf al-ʿArab (philosopher of the Arabs), presumably because he was a philosopher of genuine Arab origin in contrast to most Muslim philosophers who belonged to non-Arab nations. (Cf. the correct explanation of this name given to al-Kindī by T. J. de Boer in the Archiv. für Gesch. der Philos. [1899], xiii. 154 et seq.). al-Ḏj̲āḥiẓ i…