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[German Version] 1. Albrecht (Mar 25, 1822, Stettin – Mar 20, 1889, Göttingen). After studies in Bonn (1839–1841 under K.I. Nitzsch), Halle (1841–1843 under F.A.G. Tholuck, Julius Müller, J.E. Erdmann, and K. Schwarz), Ritschl gained his doctorate in Halle ( Expositio doctrinae Augustini de creatione mundi, peccato, gratia, 1843). He took his first examination in 1844, continued his studies in Heidelberg (1845 under R. Rothe) and Tübingen (1845/1846 under F.C. Baur, E. Zeller, A. Schwegler, and F.T. Vischer), gained his Habilitation in Bonn (1846; diss. on Marcion and the o…

[German Version] (Jun 14, 1888, Benwitsch – Jul 17, 1972, Göttingen). After childhood and youth in a Berlin parsonage, Hirsch studied Protestant theology in Berlin (1906–1910; encounter with K. Holl, whom Hirsch acknowledged as his teacher; friendship with P. Tillich). He passed the first theological examination in 1911 and became a tutor, 1912–1915 inspector at the Theologische Stift of the University of Göttingen (friendship with P. Althaus), Habilitation in church history in Bonn (1915) and ass…

[German Version] (May 8, 1899, Vienna – Mar 23, 1992, Freiburg i.Br.), studied law and economics in Vienna, was director of the Östereichisches Institut für Konjunkturforschung (Austrian Institute for Economic Research) (1927–1931), held professorships in the London School of Economics (1931–1950), Chicago (1950–1962), Freiburg im Breisgau (1962–1968), and received the Nobel Memorial Prize from the Bank of Sweden in 1974. Beginning with studies on monetary and economic cyle theory, Hayek turned in ¶ the 1940s to the study of the theoretical, socio-philosophical and a…

[German Version] Any understanding of “good” and “goods” is determined by an understanding of the highest good. 1 The so-called “good” is that which, as the perfection of the present, is experienced as attractive and thus as something to strive for (cf. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1094 a3, 1172b; Thomas Aquinas, In Metaphysicam Aristotelis commentaria, 1926, Liber IV, n. 317). Every present-action context defines the good in three configurations: (a) as a determination of the present-action context that has become world-immanent (the realized bonum); (b) as still outstanding possibiliti…

[German Version] is the theory (the epitome of statements) of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the (given) presence of distinctions. We need a criteriology to carry out our praxis of distinction deliberately and responsibly – both for appropriate apprehension of distinctions already made (either through our own praxis or through processes for which we are not responsible), in other words, for our actions that construct symbols, and for our own appropri…

[German Version] For persons standing on the ground of the (externally or personally chosen) realized situation of their own personhood, in their pragmatic present, there are still determinations of their own being to be made, and in each case they must make a choice. It is always a matter of effective physical behaviors (Action), in accordance with physical and social rules of effectivity. Options are those selectable behaviors of which the function is known, and the effect foreseeable. They can …

[German Version] The term sovereignty – as defined by J. Bodin after antique and medieval precursors – does not denote a legal title but a social reality, the reality of an effective social power to preserve external and internal peace in the territory over which it holds sway, a “commonwealth.” The term itself implies its peculiar mode of operation: recognition of its bearer as possessing the coercive power ( vis) necessary to assure sufficient compliance internally with the laws it issues, to make appointments to office and vest them with authority, and also to…

[German Version] (Dec 30, 1819, Neu-Ruppin – Sep 20, 1898, Berlin). Fontane's parents were from Huguenot families. From 1850 he worked with the Literary Cabinet of the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, in 1852 and 1855–59 he was a correspondent in London, 1859–70 editor of the Kreuz-Zeitung, from 1871 theater critic of the Vossische Zeitung, from March to May 1876 secretary of the Prussian Academy (II, 3) of Arts, a position he voluntarily resigned. He then lived as a freelance writer. After initially being known as a poet, especially of ballads, …

[German Version] is not an expression of faith or of ecclesial doctrine, but of theological reflection on these (as also e.g. “revelation”); the term is borrowed from the educated vocabulary of Hellenism. Its pre-Christian meanings are: (a) “opinion,” (b) “individual judgment,” “decision” or “resolution,” within a legal context also an “ordinance,” “edict,…

[German Version] The expression public choice denotes the central theme of a debate concerning social ethics – or, more precisely, the ethics of government action. This debate has been carried on the United States since the late 1950s and has also reached Europe: What ethically grounded constitutional principles provide a criterion for the scope and nature of governmental legal decisions (formal and operative) in questions of justice? Nozick recommends a purely negative policy: government decisions s…

[German Version] I. Philosophy of Religion and Fundamental Theology – II. Dogmatics I. Philosophy of Religion and Fundamental Theology From the perspective of fundamental theology, the relationship between activity and passivity thematizes the constitution of the christian certainty of Dasein. Its theoretical description in terms of consciousness or personhood must be examined for its ontological presuppositions and understood within their framework. Only …

[German Version] I. Economics – II. Ethics I. Economics The term “competition” is linked with the idea of rivalry, but the Latin competere makes it clear that the notion ultimately has to do with several players seeking a prize together. As competitors they strive together in an activity that demands that they give their best. Everyone profits from their competition – in economics no less than in sports. Economic competition benefits society in general precisely when those involved do no…

[German Version] I. Terminology – II. History – III. Present-day Issues – IV. Significance for Theology I. Terminology Jurisprudence means the scholarly study of law (Law and jurisprudence) as an academic discipline. The German term Rechtswissenschaft was coined by the German historical school in the early 19th century and was intended to emphasize the scientific nature of legal scholarship: iuris scientia ( Rechtswissenschaft, legal science) was to replace iuris prudentia ( Rechtsklugkeit, legal prudence). Scientia and prudentia represent the Aristotelian ¶ distinction …

[German Version] I. History of the Concept With its very first appearance in the writings of I. Kant( Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790; ET: Critique of Judgment, 1951, 1987), the term Weltanschauung came to mark the difference between the empirical-scientific knowledge of individual phenomena in this world (or of an assortment thereof) and an all-encompassing conception of the world that fundamentally transcends this knowledge. While the expression “worldview” (Ger. Weltbild) has more or less established itself as the standard designation of the former, the latter …

[German Version] 1. Franz (Jan 16, 1838, Boppard – Mar 17, 1917, Zürich). Amid the multitude of controversies in the last third of the 19th century over the philosophical foundations of science, Brentano came forward with a program that made him the founder of descriptive psychology and an influential precursor of phenomenological philosophy. As a pupil of F.A. Trendelenburg, he devoted himself initially to the study of Aristotle. After ordination to the priesthood in 1864, he …

[English Version] I. Philosophisch In der traditionellen Erkenntnislehre (Erkenntnistheorie) wird die V. vorwiegend als ein diskursives Vermögen gedacht (griech. δια´n̆οια/diánoia; λο´γος/lógos; lat. ratio), teilweise in Abgrenzung zum Verstand als intuitivem Vermögen. Mit dieser Unterscheidung wird zugleich eine Rangfolge indiziert: Das diskursive Vermögen geht entweder als syllogistisch verfahrende »Demonstration« (α᾿πο´δειξις/apódeixis) von letzten Prinzipien aus, die ihrerseits nicht durch Schlußfolgerung gefunden werden können (Arist.e.…

[English Version] I. Biblisch 1. Als T. wird die bes. in der atl. und ao. Weisheitsliteratur, aber auch noch im NT wahrnehmbare Vorstellung von einer Entsprechung zw. dem (guten/bösen) Handeln und dem jeweiligen Ergehen des Handelnden bez. Umstritten ist die Art und Weise, auf die nach atl. Verständnis der T. zustandekommt. Nach Vorarbeiten von Karl-Hjalmar Fahlgren (1932) und J. Pedersen (1934) wurde die bis zur Mitte des 20.Jh. vorherrschende Annahme eines vermeintlich das AT durchziehenden Verge…

[English Version] I. Begriffsgeschichtlich Schon das erste Auftreten von »W.« bei I. Kant (Kritik der Urteilskraft, § 26) markiert die Differenz zw. der erfahrungswiss. Erkenntnis von Einzelphänomenen in der Welt bzw. einer Zusammenstellung solcher Phänomene und einer dieser Erkenntnis prinzipiell übersteigenden Auffassung der Welt als Totalität. Für den Inbegriff der ersteren hat sich überwiegend der Ausdruck »Weltbild« durchgesetzt, für letztere hingegen »W.« (aber gelegentlich begegnet auch »Weltbild« im Sinne von W.: R.H. L…

[English Version] I. Zum Begriff R. bedeutet wiss. Beschäftigung mit dem Recht und ist Schöpfung der dt. hist. Rechtsschule der 1. Hälfte des 19.Jh. Mit ihm sollte die Wissenschaftlichkeit der Rechtsgelehrtheit betont werden; R. (iuris scientia) sollte Jurisprudenz (Rechtsklugheit) ersetzen. Scientia und prudentia sind lat. Ausdrücke für die aristotelische Unterscheidung von ε᾿πιστη´μη/epistē´mē und ϕρο´n̆ησις/phrónēsis; letzterer ordnete Aristoteles die Gesetzgebung, Rechtsprechung und Rechtsberatung zu. Jurisprudenz und R. werden heute in Deutschland zu…

[English Version] I. Dogmatisch V. kommt nach ev. Verständnis nur dem Wort Gottes (: VI.) zu, das in seiner selbst erschließenden Kraft auch zu tieferen Einsichten und »neuen Dekalogen« (Luther) führen kann; zu prüfen sind diese von der Kirche als Gemeinschaft in Bindung an den Kanon. Die Bekenntnisschriften beanspruchen V., sofern sie auf die Schrift als »einig Regel und Richtschnur« (BSLK 767,15) hinweisen; ferner abgeleitet, sofern in ihnen eine Verständigung über die sachgerechte Auslegung der Schrift erzielt wird, die aber ihrerseits stets an der Schrift zu überprüfen ist. U…