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A. LifePainter, sculptor, art theorist, architect, natural historian and engineer – in his sheer virtuosity, L. embodied the Renaissance ideal of the  uomo universale. Born on April 15, 1452 at Vinci (near Florence), the illegitimate son of the notary Ser Pietro and a peasant girl, he died on May 2, 1519 at the Manoir du Cloux (now Château du Clos Lucé, Amboise, Indre-et-Loire, France). Around 1469, he began practical training in art, without higher education in the  artes liberales (on L. as  uomo senza lettere, cf. [3. vol. 1, § 10]), with the sculptor and painter Andrea del Ver…

A. Concept and contexts of AntiquityThe term A. denotes the practice of collecting and studying  antiquitates ('antiquities') by systematic description and classification, as well as by criticism, evaluation and interpretation, on the basis of ancient material evidence (coins, gems, inscriptions, architectural monuments and remains, works of art and utility objects) and written records of the ancient world. At first, the primary intention was to facilitate a better understanding of ancient literature, but a d…

A. ConceptUntil the 18th cent., the early modern economy was a househould economy, for which the limited sphere of the household (or house, or family; Greek oíkos, Latin  familia, Italian  famiglia/ casa, French  ménage/ maison, German  Haushalt/ Haus) constituted the fundamental economic unit, self-contained and characterized by subsistence production (unity of production and consumption). This unit was dominated by the personal and hierarchical relations within the household (husband/wife, master/servant, father/child) and by ag…

A. Roots in AntiquityThe artistic practices of Antiquity revived in importance from the time of Petrarch, and so did theoretical literature on the subject. That literature ranges widely in type, and is not always specifically related to visual art. For instance, it also includes works of literarary theory, such as the Greek Poetics ( Perì poiētikês) of Aristotle and the Latin Ars poetica/ Epistula ad Pisones of Horace, for analogies were often made in Antiquity between art and literature. This analogy was already at an early date attributed to the early…

A. Concept and ancient origins S., defined as a principle of literary and artistic performance characterized by comedy, polemic, mockery, irony and exaggeration, can be associated with all conceivable genres of literature and art. At the same time, S. has become established as a literary  term primarily in reference to the verse S. that was written in the metre of the dactylic hexameter in ancient Rome and that survived as a genre with fluctuating metres until the 18th cent. The form of the so-called Menippean S. of Antiquity ( Satura Menippea, after the Cynic poet Menippus of Gadara,…

A. Life Conradus Celtis Protucius was born Konrad Bickel/Pickel, the son of a vintner, on February 11, 1459 in Wipfeld (near Schweinfurt), and died on February 4, 1508 at Vienna. The name, composed of three elements in the Roman style, is both Latinized, from celtis (the vintner's pruning 'chisel', German Pickel), and artfully Hellenized to Protucius, 'pre-chiseller' (from  pro, 'pre-', and  týkos, 'pick'). He studied the artes liberales at Cologne from 1478, taking his  Baccalaureus artium in 1479. From late 1484 to 1485, he studied at Heidelberg, with Rudolf Agricol…

A. Concept and ancient foundationsAgricultural writings are the corpus of agrarian knowledge that was formulated and passed down in written form before the advent of institutions. Until the 18th cent., the basis for the tradition was 6 texts from Latin Antiquity:(1) De agricultura ('On Agriculture') by Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, a collection of instructions in artless early Latin (1st half of 2nd cent. BC); (2) De re rustica ('On Agriculture', 3 books) by Marcus Terentius Varro, a manual of agriculture lent life as literature by its use of the dialogue form…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) [German version] Ciceronianism (CT) The term Ciceronianism was coined in the 19th cent. as a term for a Renaissance tendency to use the linguistic form and substance of Cicero's (106-43 BC) writings. The suffix -ism was added to Ciceronianus (‘a supporter of Cicero’). The term now means ‘something fashioned, in linguistic form and in philosophical content, in imitation of Cicero’. It is also an expression for a classicistic pattern of behaviour. The originator of the term is unknown; it gained currency through the Storia del Ciceronianismo of R. Sabb…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) [German version] A. Definition of Terms (CT) The word Neo-Humanism designates a concept of general education which draws its orientation primarily from Greek culture of the 5th and 4th cent. BC. It was coined to make a distinction between German Humanism of the 19th cent. and the international Latin Renaissance Humanism, or 'older humanism', of the 15th and 16th cents.[23]. The goal of this general education was the formation of the individual, the aim of education in gener…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) [German version] A. Enlightenment as a European Movement (CT) The German word Aufklärung is a metaphor [33] that has equivalents in most European languages: in English, 'Enlightenment' has become customary, in French, lumières, in Italian, illuminismo, in Spanish, ilustración, in Dutch, verlichting. However, only in France and Germany were the terms Aufklärung and lumières actually used at the time. The terms in the other languages were later translations. In France the  Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes marked the …

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) [German version] A. Definition (CT) [6] The term Third Humanism (TH) is generally used today to denote a German concept of Humanism oriented toward Antiquity that was developed by the Classical philologist Werner Jaeger in the 1920s. The ordinal numeral 'third' distinguishes this humanism from the German Second Humanism, or Neo-Humanism, of the Humboldt school (ca. 1790-1830) as well as from the international Renaissance Humanism of the 15th and 16th cents. Jaeger himself…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen) RWG [English version] A. Bezeichnung (RWG) [6] Der Ausdruck D.H. wird h. im allg. zur Bezeichnung eines an der Ant. orientierten dt. Human.-Konzeptes verwendet, das der Klass. Philologe W. Jaeger in den 20er J. des 20. Jh. entwickelt hat; durch die Ordinalzahl wird dieser H. unterschieden von dem dt. Zweiten Human. oder Neuhumanismus Humboldtscher Prägung (ca. 1790-1830) und dem internationalen Ren.-Human. des 15. und 16. Jh. Während W. Jaeger selbst zunächst sein Bildungskon…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen) RWG [English version] A. Wort und Begriff [8] (RWG) Das Wort C. als Bezeichnung für die Orientierung an Sprachform und Inhalt der Schriften Ciceros (106-43 v.Chr.) in der Ren. ist eine Bildung im 19. Jh. durch das Suffix -ismus zu Ciceronianus “Anhänger Ciceros” und bedeutet “sprachlich-formale und inhaltlich-philos. Bildung in der Art und Nachahmung Ciceros”. Es ist also Ausdruck für ein klassizistisches Verfahren. Der Urheber der Wortbildung ist unbekannt; gebräuchlich ist das Wort durch die Storia del Ciceronianismo von R. Sabbadini (1886) g…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen) RWG [English version] A. Aufklärung als europäische Bewegung (RWG) Das dt. Wort “A.” hat als Metapher [33] Äquivalente in den meisten europ. Sprachen; im Engl. ist “enlightenment” üblich geworden, im Frz. “lumières”, im It. “illuminismo”, im Span. “ilustración”, im Niederländischen “verlichting”. Allerdings sind nur in Frankreich und Deutschland die Bezeichnungen “A.” und “lumières” bei den Zeitgenossen gebräuchlich gewesen. Die Formulierungen in den anderen Sprachen sind später…

Balzert, Monika [German version] A. Concept and Function (CT) Today, translation is understood as both the process and result of reproducing words, sentences and texts of an original language into a target language. Translating serves communication and interaction and is 'culturally' determined. In translation theory, translating is even a partial aspect of communicative action: the translator must not only master the target and the original language and be in possession of specialist knowledge, but must…

A. Historical place A.1. Curia and Papal StatesWhen the papal Curia moved from R. to Avignon (1303–1378), the Papal States in Italy, the Patrimonium Petri, dissolved into political anarchy. The city of R., as the centre of the state, was particularly affected. Not only did it lose its economic basis, it suffered a power vacuum, which patrician clans sought to fill as they vied for political and commercial influence. Nor did this situation change during the Great Western Schism (1378–1415/17), for even …

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) [German version] I. Philhellenism in the Broader Sense (CT) The term Philhellenism is derived from Philhellenes ('Friends of the Greeks'; Greek: philhéllēnes). In the broader sense, it designates any cultural or political movement that admires the Greeks and Greece and feels itself connected to them; in the narrower sense, it denotes a Western European and American political and literary movement that supported the Greeks in the 19th cent. in their struggle for liberation from Turkish ru…

Landfester, Manfred (Gießen RWG) I. Greek (CT) A. Byzantine Philology (ca. 800-1453) (CT) [German version] 1. Terminology (CT) As the scientific study of the literature and language of Greek Antiquity, Byzantine philology, in the tradition of ancient Greek philology, meant primarily grammar, constitution of texts and explanation of texts. It was essentially humanistic, for it understood itself as a means for the linguistic, literary, intellectual and moral renewal of the present through texts from Antiquity. The…