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1. Definition Wanderarbeiter (= W.er) verkörperten in der Nz. einen Typus mobiler Arbeitskräfte, die aufgrund freier und primär wirtschaftlich motivierter Entscheidung vorübergehend an einem anderen Ort als ihrem ständigen Wohnsitz tätig waren, meist kürzer als ein Jahr (Arbeitsmigration). Ihre temporäre Migration erforderte spezifische Regelungen mit den zurückbleibenden Haushaltsangehörigen, mit den Mitwanderern, manchmal mit der gesamten (ländlichen) Herkunftsgemeinde. Die Wandersaison in der Landwirtschaft (v. a. in Ernte-Zeiten) wie auch in jenen Gew…

1. Concept Migrants (Mobility; Immigration; Emigration; Settler migration, European) in early modern Europe often established their own religious communities, especially when their religion was not institutionally represented in the area of settlement. Even if it was, many immigrants still preferred to worship among themselves, for reasons of familiarity and language. Examples of the latter case include the German Catholic Church in Rome [7] and the Protestant Walloon churches of the French-speaking migrants in the Netherlands, German states, and British…

1. OverviewIn contrast to permanent migrants, temporary migrants aim to return after an absence from home. Within this category in the early modern period we can distinguish two types of migrant: those whose work required them to be away for several years and those who were absent for only a portion of the year and spent the rest doing work on their own farms – usually as smallholders or sub-peasants. This article discusses the first category; on the second, see Occupational migration; Seasonal l…

The Russian otkhodniki (literally “departers”) in the context of serfdom (which was legally abolished in Russia only in 1861) denoted people who were allowed to leave the estate to which they were bound for a fixed period (generally between one and four months), to work elsewhere. Their lord issued them with a pass to this effect [4. 335]. Although serfdom as such presented an impediment to geographical mobility, this time-limited form of migration constituted an exception (cf. Serfdom 4.). Various forms of peasant bondage in Russia from the la…

1. Definition Migrant laborers in the early modern period were a type of mobile workforce that, voluntarily and for primarily economic reasons, took up temporary work (usually for less than one year) at a place other than their normal abode (Occupational migration). Their temporary migration  necessitated specific arrangements with the other members of their household, with their co-workers, and sometimes with the entire rural community from which they came. The migration season in agri…

1. Introduction Slavery and the associated forced movement of people, either through slave markets or by direct sale to states or employers, was a widespread phenomenon in the Middle Ages, especially in Eastern and Southern Europe [8]; [4]. The Roman Catholic Church, however, was a fierce opponent, and prevented the spread of the practice in Italy and Spain in the 11th century (apart from ransom slavery between Muslims and Christians). This changed in the 14th century, when the Black Death caused a significant increase in labo…

1. Definition and basicsThe term transhumance was coined in 1892 by the French geographer Jean-François Bladé (see Turkish  yaylag/ yaylak). In Western anthropology, it stands for a specific type of pastoral farming and a lifestyle based on it. It denotes a variant of occupational migration and animal husbandry, of non-sedentary pastoral economy [3. 22–23]; [4. 23], subdivided into nomadism, transhumance, and Alpine economy. Each type has a specific corresponding form of migration. Highly specialized stock farming with indoor shelter in winter…

1. ConceptEmigration is a form of mobility that takes place by voluntary decision (unlike abduction [Slave abduction] or forced migration) and for primarily economic reasons (unlike conscientious refugee movements; cf. Refugees of conscience; Exile), and in which the migrant or emigré intends to settle elsewhere permanently (unlike occupational migration). Depending on destination, distinctions can be drawn between migrations from Europe to other continents (including colonial migration; Immigrat…

The press gang was an early modern form of military recruitment, in which free men were taken by force to serve in the navy. It amounted to a form of forced migration and long-term temporary migration.The system emerged as mercenary armies were replaced by standing armies, which took place between around 1650 and 1800 (Army reforms). Most soldiers and sailors on naval vessels in early modern European standing armed forces were recruited as free individuals (or in groups) for a specified term. In states like Sweden from the 17t…

1. Definition Occupational migration is a form of mobility in whichmigrants pursue the freely chosen aim (in contrast to forced migration) of working temporarily (in contrast to permanent emigration) in a different place. This aim is primarily economically motivated (in contrast to refugees of conscience). As a rule, the migrants do not intend to work steadily for several years, like soldiers, sailors, domestics, and many journeymen (Temporary migration) but for relatively short periods…

Mobility among agrarian population groups in Western Europe was already increasing considerably between the 11th and 13th centuries, and the process took two forms. Growing agricultural productivity led to the establishment of a wave of new towns and rapid population increase in existing ones (Urbanization; Urban migration). This growth depended mostly on inward migration by former inhabitants of villages hoping for more personal freedom and relief from feudal obligations (…

1. UrbanizationIn the first part of the early modern period in Europe, towns had an extraordinary attraction for migrants, primarily for economic reasons (see 2. below). In the course of urbanization beginning in 1500, their population grew both relatively and absolutely; until well into the 18th century, they also had a high mortality rate, so that constant immigration was necessary to keep the population stable.Although towns were growing everywhere in Europe, urbanization was highly uneven both chronologically and geographically (see Population,…

1. Introduction 1.1. History of scholarshipUntil the 1980s, the subject of geographical mobility was of little interest to historians of the early modern period. It was generally assumed that societies before 1800 were reasonably spatially stable and that migration was an exceptional phenomenon. It was believed that people only became mobile when left with no other choice, for example as a result of wars, famine, natural catastrophes, or severe political or religious oppression. This explains why ref…

1. TypesTransport of goods in the early modern period automatically implied movement of persons (e.g. mariners and merchants) and consequently temporary or permanent migration, including for engaging in trade [5. 19–29]. We may distinguish four major forms:(1) Trade contacts in which the merchants themselves traveled little or not at all, but maintained contact with suppliers, customers, and agents by letter (Commercial correspondence; Fuggerzeitung) or occasional visits; payments were usually made by bills of exchange. This wa…

1. Definition Immigration means the settlement of individuals or groups in a new place of residence. In modern usage, immigration usually suggests crossing international borders, but in the early modern period the term had primarily local meaning. A distinction must be made between urban and rural immigration. In early modern Europe, geographical mobility was closely associated with processes of urbanization. The various patterns of migration together with their geographical, social, an…

1. Definition There are various reasons why people may be forced to emigrate or flee against their will (Emigration): because of their faith or ideological position, for political reasons, or for economic reasons (Slave abduction). In the early modern period, confessional loyalty led to forced emigration from places where people refused to convert to the religion desired or prescribed by the state, or where they did not trust the success of such a mandatory conversion between faiths, so…

The term millet (from the Arabic milla, “religious community”) in the Ottoman Empire denoted non-Muslim religious groups [1. 69]. The first attestation is from 17th-century Aleppo, where it denoted communities of Christians and Jews who, while not Ottoman subjects, were living temporarily in the Ottoman Empire, most of them as merchants. In this sense, the term resembled the concept of nationes as it was usually known in early modern western Europe (cf. Trading settlement).Jews and Christians had lived within the Ottoman polity since the dawn of the early moder…

Many of the impoverished laborers in Europe who wanted to try their luck in North American in the 17th and 18th centuries did not have sufficient means to do so (Emigration). One of the more common expedients was indentured servitude or indentured labor. Some legal systems, in particular in England, allowed for the practice of indentured servitude or labor, in which individuals contracted voluntarily to serve for a term with severely restricted personal rights (Personality, right of) in return f…

1. Concept Already by the early modern period, key institutions like the State, University, and church (Church) relied on highly specialized “migrants” recruited in an international marketplace. For most of them, relocating was an inescapable condition of their careers, so that this particular form of Emigration is called institutional career migration. Depending on the particular institution involved, a state, academic, or ecclesiastical career for scholars, professors, clergy, civil servants, an…

A great many groups and activities come under the category of itinerancy. In essence, itinerants were migrants moving into a particular region as traveling tradespeople intending to sell their wares and services. Like most migrants (or vagrants, as they were often called), they tended to come from poorer regions, such as mountainous areas, where opportunities for employment were insufficient and it was necessary to augment income by traveling away to work (Occupational migration) [1]; [2]; [6].A distinction can be drawn between itinerants who traveled without their fa…