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Voice
(2,102 words)
1. Definition ‘Voice’ or ‘diathesis’ refers to the relation between an action and its participants (Agent; Patient), as expressed in a clause by the verb and its arguments. Following Classical Greek grammar, a distinction is traditionally made between active, passive, and middle voice. A clause is said to be active when the agent performing the action occupies the position of subject, and the patient affected by it the position of object. In the most common type of passive construction (which may be referred to as the ‘basic passive’, cf…
Comitative: Modern Hebrew
(450 words)
The comitative case, which denotes the company in which an action is performed, or with whom or what an object or person is found, is most commonly expressed in Modern Hebrew by means of a prepositional phrase introduced by עם
ʿim ‘with’, as in הערב אני הולכת לקולנוע עם חברות
ha-ʿerev ʾ ani holexet la-qolnoaʿ ʿim x̱averot ‘tonight I am going to the cinema with friends’. The inflected forms עמי,
ʿimi ‘with me’, עמך
ʿimxa ‘with you (ms)’, etc., are perceived as literary, and have been replaced in everyday speech by the inflected forms of את
ʾet (a synonym of עם
ʿim), viz., אתי,
ʾiti ‘with me’ אתך,
ʾitxa…
Circumstantial Clause
(1,284 words)
A circumstantial clause is a clause providing ‘background information’ on an occurrence described by another clause—more precisely, on the state or qualities of the participants involved in a given event or situation, their position or actions at the time of the occurrence, etc. Circumstantial clauses are closely related to other types of adverbial clauses (Adverbial)—mainly Temporal Clauses, Causal Clauses, and Concession Clauses—from which they cannot always be clearly distinguished. An extens…
Instrumental
(755 words)
1. Biblical Hebrew An instrumental phrase in a verbal clause expresses the means by which the action is performed. In Biblical Hebrew it is typically a prepositional phrase introduced by the preposition -בּ
bə-, corresponding in this context to English ‘with’ or ‘by’. It may refer to tangible instruments, as in וְהִכָּה־אִישׁ֙ אֶת־רֵעֵ֔הוּ בְּאֶ֖בֶן א֣וֹ בְאֶגְרֹ֑ף
wə-hikkå̄-ʾīš ʾεṯ-rēʿēhū bə-ʾεḇεn ʾō ḇə-ʾεḡrōp̄ ‘and one smite the other with a stone, or with his fist’ (Exod. 21.18), or to events such as wars or natural catastrophes (‘forces’ in the terminology…
Adverbial
(1,873 words)
A nominal or prepositional phrase that modifies a verb phrase or an entire sentence is called an adverbial phrase, while a subordinate clause with a similar role is termed an adverbial clause. Note that the latter term is somewhat ambiguous: though it is often taken to refer to the subordinate clause strictly defined, it is in fact the combination of this clause with a preposition and/or conjunction which gives it its adverbial function (Glinert 1988:253–254). Adverbial phrases and adverbial cla…
Subject: Modern Hebrew
(1,029 words)
In defining the notion of ‘subject’, a distinction must be made between the grammatical and the logical or psychological level (see, for instance, Jespersen 1924:145–154; Lyons 1968:334–343). The grammatical subject of a verbal clause is defined as the element (nominal or pronominal) with which the verb form agrees in person, gender, and number. This does not necessarily coincide with the logical subject, or topic, defined as the element that is given and on which something new (the logical predicate, or comment) is asserted. Thus in שרה צחקה
śara ṣax̱aqa ‘Sarah laughed’, ‘Sarah’ i…
Patient
(384 words)
An entity that ‘suffers’ an action or process, i.e., is affected or altered by it, is referred to as a ‘patient’ (other terms, such as ‘object’ and ‘undergoer’, are also found in the literature). The semantic role of the patient, undergoing a change imposed from the outside, is diametrically opposed to that of the Agent, initiating an action without being affected by it; agent and patient may be pictured at the two ends of a spectrum of thematic relations (e.g., Van Valin 2006:685). In active, transitive clauses (Voice) the patient is expressed as the object of the verb, while…
Government
(2,143 words)
The term ‘government’ (French ‘rection’, German ‘Rektion’) refers, in traditional grammar, to the relation between two elements, one of which imposes certain requirements on the form of the other. Thus, for instance, in Semitic languages, a noun in the construct state or a preposition governs a noun in the genitive case (or a pronominal suffix). Similarly, a verb requiring its complement to be a nominal phrase in the accusative case is said to govern a complement in the accusative (a direct obje…
Purpose Clause: Biblical Hebrew
(406 words)
Finality or purpose may be expressed in Biblical Hebrew in a variety of ways. Subordinate final clauses are commonly introduced by the conjunction לְמַעַן
lə-maʿan ‘(so) that’, as in Prov. 19.20 לְ֝מַ֗עַן תֶּחְכַּ֥ם בְּאַחֲרִיתֶֽךָ
lə-maʿan tεḥkam bə-ʾaḥărīṯεḵå̄ ‘that thou mayest be wise in thy latter end’; other conjunctions such as בַּעֲבוּר
ba-ʿăḇūr, אֲשֶׁר
ʾăšεr and לְמַעַן אֲשֶׁר
lə-maʿan ʾăšεr are also in use, albeit far less frequently; see GKC (504) and Joüon and Muraoka (2006:596) for examples. For the expression of negative purpose the conjunctions פֶּן
pεn and לְבִלְתִּי
lə-ḇiltī ‘…
Partitive
(562 words)
An expression indicating part of a whole is termed ‘partitive’. Such an expression will usually include a noun phrase referring to the whole, as well as an element referring to the part—a number or fraction, an indefinite quantifier such as ‘some’ or ‘several’, or a noun such as ‘portion’ or ‘piece’. Syntactically, part and whole are often linked in Hebrew by the preposition מן
min ‘of, from’ or its enclitic form -מ
mi-, e.g., Modern Hebrew חלק מהספרים
x̱eleq me-ha-sfarim ‘some of the books’. Derivatives of מן
min, such as מבין
mi-ben, מתוך
mi-tox, or מקרב
mi-qerev ‘from among, out of’, ma…
Agent
(493 words)
In general terms, the agent is defined as the entity performing a given action, as opposed to the Patient, the entity affected by it. In active constructions (Voice) the agent occupies the position of Subject, while in passive clauses it is usually omitted, but may be expressed by an adjunct phrase, e.g., הטכנאי תיקן את המחשב
ha-ṭexnay tiqen ʾet ha-max̱šev ‘the technician repaired the computer’ vs. הטכנאי) המחשב תוקן (על ידי
ha-max̱šev tuqan (ʿal yede ha-ṭexnay) ‘the computer was repaired (by the technician)’. Experiencers of cognitive processes, e.g., as in שמחנו לראות אתכם
śamax̱nu l…