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i. Achaemenid Period. ii. Sasanian Period. iii. Islamic Period. iv. Safavid and Qajar Periods. v. Pahlavi Period. vi. Islamic Republic. A version of this article is available in printVolume IX, Fascicle 6, pp. 639-654 FISCAL SYSTEM in Persia.FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENIDThere probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates (Dandamayev and Lukonin, p. 208).Taxes constituted the most substantial source of government income. Beginning fro…

ancient city and province in northwestern Afghanistan. OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography. ii. History, Pre-Islamic Period. iii. History, Medieval Period. iv. Topography and urbanism. v. Local histories. vi. The Herat question. vii. The Herat frontier, 19th and 20th centuries.A version of this article is available in printVolume XII, Fascicle 2, 3, pp. 203-226 HERAT, ancient city and province in northwestern Afghanistan.HERAT i. GEOGRAPHYThe province of Herat constitutes roughly the northern one-third of the western lowlands of Afghanistan, bordering on Pe…

ancient province and old city in central Iran. Isfahan city has served as one of the most important urban centers on the Iranian Plateau since ancient times.A version of this article is available in printVolume XIII, Fascicle 6, pp. 613-675 and Volume XIV, Fascicle 1, 2, pp. 1-119 ISFAHAN, ancient province and old city in central Iran (Middle Pers. “Spahān,” New Pers. “Eṣfahān”). Isfahan city has served as one of the most important urban centers on the Iranian Plateau since ancient times and has gained, over centuries of urbanization, many si…