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Stoicheion

(391 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[German version] (στοιχεῖον/ stoicheîon, Latin elementum). The primarily philosophical concept of stoicheion (originally meaning 'letter') denotes the irreducible basic components or the foundations of Being. Probably by analogy of letters with words, the concept represents an attempt to understand the bewilderingly great multiplicity of the natural world as combinations of a limited number of elements. The term stoicheion was in antiquity fundamentally linked to the classical theory, fully formulated by Empedocles [1], of the four elements earth, wat…

Rationality

(2,612 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[German version] A. Definition The ancient concept of rationality cannot be tied to a single Greek or Latin term. First of all it must be distinguished from modern notions. The modern mind - both in general and in the sciences - is moulded by technological, economic, and administrative structures, and tends to equate rationality with 'goal-oriented rationality' (a rationality which focuses on means to reach a purpose). Given M. Weber's sociological distinction between goal-oriented, value-oriented, …

Virtue

(1,048 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
(ἀρετή/ aretḗ; 'fitness', 'excellence'; Latin virtus). [German version] A. Archaic Period The term ‘virtue’ has pre-philosophical and philosophical meanings. Pre-philosophical conceptions (in, for example, Greek epic and Archaic elegy, historiography and the Attic orators) correspond to a heroic and political ethics, whose main characteristics are practical wisdom and courage as well as the pursuit of fame and the avoidance of shame. On the other hand, the Delphic Maxims, ascribed to the Seven Sages, proclaim ‘know yourself’, ‘nothing to excess’. The transformation from un…

Philosophy

(2,740 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[German version] A. Word and meaning Philosophy means 'love of wisdom' or 'desire for wisdom' ( p hilo-sophia). The Greek noun φιλοσοφία ( philosophía) and the verb φιλοσοφεῖν ( philosopheîn) do not yet appear in Homer [1] and Hesiod ( c. 700 BC), whereas σοφία ( sophía) occasionally does appear. Sophía refers to any kind of technical ability, intellectual knowledge or political savvy as embodied e.g. by the Seven Sages (Hdt. 1,29; 30; 60; 4,95). The term philósophos is first attested in Heraclitus (fr. 35 DK), but Plato [1] was the first who defined it - before Plato philosophía was synonym…

Conscience

(616 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[German version] The modern term ‘conscience’ as the awareness of good and evil in one's acts has an approximate though not exact linguistic equivalent in Greek συνείδησις ( syneídēsis, also τὸ συνειδός/ to syneidós, σύνεσις/ sýnesis) and Latin conscientia. The term syneídēsis is rarely used from the 5th to 2nd cents. BC but becomes more frequent after the 1st cent. BC. Three basic meanings must be differentiated: 1) the ‘awareness’ of one's own, mostly negatively evaluated behaviour; 2) the (moral) conscience; 3) one's ‘internal’ conscience. Conscience internalizes the moral …

Self-knowledge

(772 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[German version] (γνῶσις or ἐπιστήμη ἑαυτοῦ/ gnôsis or epistḗmē heautoû; Latin notitia, cognitio sui; noscere/cognoscere seipsum). The philosophical and popular conceptions of self-knowledge throughout antiquity often refer explicitly to the precept inscribed above the temple of Apollo in Delphi (Delphi, Oracles): 'know thyself' (γνῶθι σ[ε]αυτόν/ gnôthi s[e]autón); the precise date of origin of that inscription, however, is uncertain. The oldest testimony is Soph. fr. 509 P. (θνητὰ φρονεῖν χρὴ θνητὴν φύσιν/ thn ētà phroneîn chrḕ thnētḕn phýsin, "the mortal soul must thin…

Philosophie

(2,557 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[English version] A. Wort und Begriff Ph. bedeutet soviel wie “Liebe zur Weisheit” oder “Verlangen nach Wissen” ( Philo-sophia). Das griech. Subst. φιλοσοφία ( philosophía) bzw. das Verb φιλοσοφεῖν ( philosopheín) taucht bei Homeros [1] und Hesiodos (um 700 v.Chr.) noch nicht auf, σοφία ( sophía) dagegen gelegentlich. Sophía bedeutet jede Form von technischer Fertigkeit, intellektuellem Wissen oder polit. Klugheit, wie es etwa die Sieben Weisen verkörpern (Hdt. 1,29; 30; 60; 4,95). Das Wort philósophos ist zum ersten Mal bei Herakleitos nachweisbar (fr. 35 DK), doch e…

Gewissen

(605 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[English version] Der moderne Begriff “G.” als Bewußtsein von Gut und Böse im eigenen Tun findet im griech. συνείδησις ( syneídēsis; auch τὸ συνειδός/ to syneidós, σύνεσις/ sýnesis) und im lat. conscientia ein annäherndes, wenn auch kein deckungsgleiches sprachliches Gegenstück. Der Begriff syneídēsis wird vom 5. bis zum 2. Jh. v.Chr. selten, ab dem 1. Jh. v.Chr. jedoch häufiger verwendet. Drei Grundbedeutungen sind zu unterscheiden: 1) das “Bewußtsein” eigenen, meist negativ bewerteten Verhaltens; 2) das (moralische) G.; 3) das eigene …

Rationalität

(2,459 words)

Author(s): Renaud, François (Moncton, NB)
[English version] A. Definition Das ant. Verständnis von R. ist auf keinen einzelnen griech. oder lat. Terminus festgelegt und ist zunächst von der mod. Begrifflichkeit zu unterscheiden. Durch Technik, Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungsstrukturen geprägt, tendiert das mod. allg. und wiss. Bewußtsein dazu, die “Zweckrationalität” (die auf die Mittel im Hinblick auf bestimmte Zwecke gerichtete R.) mit R. überhaupt gleichzusetzen. Nach M. Webers soziologischer Unterscheidung zw. zweckrationalem, wertrational…