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IV. I. Synchronistic overview of the main states of the ancient Near East in the second millennium BC On the basis of the extant textual tradition, it remains impossible to determine an absolute and continuous chronology of the ancient Near East in the second millennium BC by using one generally accepted beginning point. For the period prior to 1500 BC the so-called “middle chronology” and “low chronology” (shifted about 64 years forward1) are irreconcilable alternatives; the crucial date is the year in which Babylon was taken by the Hittites, dated to 1595 or 1531…

IV. 1. Synchronische Übersicht zu den wichtigsten Staaten des Alten Orients im 2. Jt. v. Chr. Überlieferungsbedingt ist es bis heute nicht möglich, die altorientalische Chronologie für das 2. Jt. v. Chr. durchgehend nach einem allgemein anerkannten Ansatz absolut festzulegen. Für die Zeit vor 1500 stehen sich v.a. die sog. »mittlere Chronologie« und die um 64 Jahre1 niedrigere »kurze Chronologie« gegenüber (Schlüsseldatum ist das Jahr der Eroberung Babylons durch die Hethiter, das auf 1595 bzw. auf 1531 datiert wird). Erstere Chronologie wird der Ges…

[English version] Inneres Land des hethitischen Reiches (Ḫattusa II. mit Karte) im Süden Kleinasiens, das erstmals z.Z. Muwattallis II. (ca. 1290-1272 v. Chr.) anläßlich der vorübergehenden Verlegung der hethit. Hauptstadt in dessen gleichnamigen Hauptort (T.) (beim h. Karaman oder im oberen Kalykadnos-Tal gelegen) ins Licht der Gesch. trat. Nach der Absetzung Mursilis III.-Urḫitesubs (ca. 1272-1265) richtete Ḫattusili II. (bisher “III.”; ca. 1265-1240) vertraglich als Abfindung für dessen von der…

[English version] Zu den anatolischen Sprachen gehörende, in einer eigenen, linksläufigen Alphabetschrift (Kleinasien VI.) überl. Sprache von Side und Umgebung. Bis h. sind neben Mz.-Aufschriften (5./4. Jh. v. Chr.) sechs zumeist kurze Weih-Inschr., darunter drei s.-griech. Bilinguen (eine aus Seleukeia [4]/Lyrbe), ein Stimmtäfelchen und eine Gefäßaufschrift des 3./2. Jh. bekannt ([2] und [1] mit jeweils älterer Lit.; [3]). Trotz des spärlichen Materials ist deutlich, daß das S. eine eigene, vom b…

[English version] I. Geographische Lage, Grenzen Im 15.-13. Jh. v. Chr. durch die hethit. Überl. bezeugter luw.-sprachiger (Luwisch) Staat in NW-Kleinasien, der in seinem Kerngebiet die (küstennah ineinander übergehenden) Täler des Hermos [2] und Kaïkos [1] umfaßte und von einem dieser beiden Flüsse auch seinen Namen bezog. Die hethit. Bezeichnung ist Sēḫas utnē (akkadograph. KUR ÍD ŠE-E-ḪA) “Land S.”, während das in der Sekundärlit. oft begegnende “S.-Flußland” auf unzulässiger Mitübersetzung des Determinativs ÍD “Fluß” beruht. S. grenzte im Norden (beim Golf von…

[English version] Im 14.-13. Jh. v. Chr. durch die hethitische Überl. bezeugter Staat (hethit. U̯ilusa-/ U̯ilussa-) im NW Kleinasiens, der den Hethitern E. des 15. Jh. zunächst unter dem Namen Āssuwa (=Ā.) bekannt wurde. Seine geogr. Lage in der Troas (vgl. Ḫattusa II., Karte, sowie v. a. die Karten in [2. 304-307]), die schon 1924 vorgeschlagen wurde [6] und 1997 aufgrund neuer Materiallage bewiesen werden konnte [8; 4], ergibt sich aus der engen Verbindung von W. mit dem Meer [10. 603], aus seiner geogr. N…

[German version] Hittite name attested in the 14th-13th cents. BC ( Lu-uk-ka/ ka4-a- [Lukkā-], with a stem ending of prolonged grade and certainly accented. Akkadian Lukki, Egyptian Rk [Luka/i]) for the area encompassing southwestern Asia Minor, western Pamphylia/ western Pisidia, Lycia and southern Caria, which stretched in the east to the Cestrus (Hittite Kastraja), in the north to Arzawa (or Mira) and bordered on Mycenaean settled Millawa(n)da ( Miletus) ( Hattusa II with map). It should be understood only in the poli…

[German version] A. Documented period, language area Derived from the Hittite designation Luu̯ili-, Luwian is the term for the most widespread representative of the Anatolian languages in Asia Minor. It is attested in two dialects, both recorded in different writing systems. Cuneiform Luwian (CL, 16th to 13th cent. BC) and Hieroglyphic Luwian (HL, 15th to early 7th cent. BC), as well as in its late successors Pisidian (Pis., 3rd cent. AD), Lycian (5th to 4th cent. BC) and Milyan (Mil., 5th/4th cents. BC), …

[German version] I. Geographic location, borders Luwian-speaking (Luwian) state in Northwestern Asia Minor documented in Hittite transmission in the 15th-13th cents. BC. Its core area comprised the valleys of the Hermus [2] and the Caecus [1] (merging near the coast), and its name is derived from one of these two rivers. The Hittite designation is Sēḫas utnē (in Akkadian orthography KUR ÍD ŠE-E-ḪA) 'the land of S.,' while the name 'river land of S.', often found in secondary literature, is based on the inappropriate translation of the determinative ÍD 'river.' In the north, S. borde…

[German version] A. Introduction Horsemanship refers to the riding style developed in ancient times for military use of the  horse that has remained dominant up to the present time for European riding - the ‘classical riding style’. It is distinguished from other riding styles (that were only passed down or arose in modern times) in that in the training of the horse it is not satisfied with mere habituation but follows a systematic, gradually increased exercise programme that is based on strict obse…

[German version] A. Tradition The language, passed down to us in Babylonian cuneiform, of the Hittites who had political leadership in Asia Minor in the 2nd millennium BC (core area appr. the geographical region outlined by Halys/Kızıl İrmak,  Ḫattusa II), which they themselves called Nesumnili- ‘Nesic’, a derivative of the place name Nēsa- (= Old Assyrian Kaneš, near Kayseri; the modern term has its origin in the historical development of the discipline); at the same time the most important representative of the  Anatolian languages from the point …

[German version] Inland country of the Hittite Empire (Ḫattusa II. with map) in southern Asia Minor, which first makes an appearance in history at the time of Muwattalli II ( c. 1290-1272 BC) during the temporary relocation of the Hittite capital to this region's capital of the same name (T.; at modern Karaman or in the upper  Calycadnus valley). After Mursili III Urḫitesub ( c. 1272-1265) was deposed, Ḫattusili II (previously “III”; c.  1265-1240) established in T., as compensation for his brother Kurunta Ulmitesub who had been excluded from the legitimate successi…

[German version] The language of the country of Plā (cuneiform Pa-la-a-) situated northwest of the Halys in Paphlagonia. It belongs to the Anatolian languages and is passed down from the 16th-15th cent. BC by the Hittites (Ḫattusa II, Hittite). The names of Plā and of neighbouring Tum(m)anna (Ḫattusa II , map), survive in the Greek regional names Blaē̈nḗ and Domanítis. It would therefore seem more accurate if the name of the language, which derives from Hittite Plaumnili- (derivation from the ethnic name Plaumen-*), were 'Plaic'. The extent of the area in which P. was spoken is…

[German version] The earliest documented Indo-Germanic language branch, which occurs in Asia Minor; ranged in the 2nd millennium from the Aegean coast to the Euphrates, gradually in the 1st millennium through  Phrygia, later above all through  Greece until it penetrated relatively inaccessible parts of the Taurus mountains (East Pisidia, Lycaonia, Isauria), where Anatolian (Luwian) language carriers remained, probably until the early Byzantine era. To the Anatolian languages (AL) belong  Hittite. …

[German version] State recorded in the 14th-13th cents. BC by the Hittite tradition (Hittite U̯ilusa-/ U̯ilussa-) in the northwest of Asia Minor, which was initially known to the Hittites at the end of the 15th cent. under the name Āssuwa (=Ā.). Its geographical location in the Troad (cf. Ḫattusa II, map, and above all the maps in [2. 304-307]), which was proposed as early as 1924 [6] and was able to be proved in 1997 on the basis of new evidence [8; 4], follows from W.'s close connexion with the sea [10. 603…

[German version] I. Geographical site, boundaries M. (Hittite also Merā-) is the name of the core territory of the significant Luwian-speaking state of Arzawa in western Asia Minor, which is attested from the 16th cent. BC on, primarily through the Hittite tradition, and of the Hittite vassal state formed out of it in c. 1315 BC. The vassal state grew into a Great Kingdom at the end of the 13th cent., and may have survived the collapse of the Hittite Empire (shortly after 1200 BC; see Ḫattusa II.). The western part of M., with the Arzawan capital of Abasa/Ephesus, encompassed the r…

[German version] Language of the inhabitants of Caria ( Cares, Caria), documented in c. 200 inscriptions -- from the 7th-4th cents. BC that are mostly very short or fragmentary and written in a characteristic alphabetic script -- which apart from Greek-Carian bilingual inscriptions from Athens that came from Carian mercenaries and almost solely contain personal names, for the most part come from Egypt (e.g. Saqqāra, Abydus, Abu Simbel), and to a lesser extent from Caria itself (e.g. Caunus, Hyllarima, Sinur…

[German version] Lydian, belonging to the Anatolian languages, is the language of the Lydians and is transmitted in its own alphabetical script, which is written either left-to-right or right-to-left ( Asia Minor V., with map). Around 100 inscriptions are known today (including several graffiti and inscriptions on seals and coins), the majority of them, including two Lydian-Greek and two Lydian-Aramaic bilingual inscriptions, stemming from the 5th-4th/3rd cent. BC, while some of the graffiti and c…

[German version] One of the  Anatolian languages; written in its own alphabetic script (Asia Minor VI), which runs from right to left, and attested in Side and the surrounding area. In addition to inscriptions on coins (5th/4th cent. BC), six mostly brief dedicatory inscriptions are known today, among them three that are bilingual (Sidetic-Greek; one is from Seleucia/Lyrbe), one voting tablet, and one inscription on a vessel from the 3rd/2nd cent. ([2] and [1] each with older literature; [3]). In …

[English version] Sprache der Bewohner Kariens (Kares, Karia), bezeugt durch ca. 200 zumeist sehr kurze bzw. fragmentarische, in eigentümlicher Alphabetschrift geschriebene Inschr. des 7.-4. Jh.v.Chr., die abgesehen von einer griech.-k. Bilingue aus Athen zum größeren Teil - von k. Söldnern herrührend und fast nur PN enthaltend - aus Äg. (z.B. Saqqāra, Abydos, Abu Simbel), zum geringeren Teil aus Karien selbst (z.B. Kaunos, Hyllarima, Sinuri) und Lydien (Sardes, Smyrna) stammen, sowie durch PN, ON…