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, covering, protection, shelter, especially at the ṣalāt, where sutra means the object, which the worshipper places in front of him or lays in the direction of the ḳibla whereby he shuts himself off in an imaginary area within which he is not disturbed by human or demoniacal influences. “The fictitious fencing off of an open place of prayer, the sutra, seems to have had among other objects that of warding off demons” (Wellhausen, Reste 2, p. 158). In one tradition the man who deliberately penetrates into this imaginary area is actually called a s̲h̲aiṭān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Ṣalāt, bāb too; cf. Aḥm…

(a.), infinitive V from the root h-d̲j̲-d which is one of the roots with opposed meanings ( aḍdād), as it signifies “sleep” and also “to be awake”, “to keep a vigil”, “to perform the night ṣalāt or the nightly recitation of the Ḳurʾān”. The latter two meanings have become the usual ones in Islām. The word occurs only once in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xvii. 81: “And in a part of the night, perform a ṣalāt as a voluntary effort” etc., but the thing itself is often referred to. We are told of the pious (li. 17) that they sl…

(also briefly called al-Baḳīʿ), the cemetery of Medīna. The name denotes a field, which was originally covered with a kind of high growing black berry; there were several such Baḳīʿ’s in Medīna. The place was and is situated at the south-east end of the town, outside the modern town-wall through which a gateway, Bāb al-Baḳīʿ, gives admittance to the cemetery (see the map of Medīna in Caetani, Annali, ii. 1, p. 73). The first to be buried in al-Baḳī was ʿOt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn, the ascetic companion of the Prophet; the latter’s daughters, the little Ibrāhīm, and his…

(a.), visit, in the religious sense the visit to a holy place or to the tomb of a saint, especially to Muḥammad’s tomb in the mosque of al-Madīna, which even under the Wahhābī rule is paid by those who perform the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ [q. v.]. The ziyāra paid to the tombs of the saints was among the bidaʾwhich were combated by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb [cf. wahhābīya]. For details cf. W. R. van Diflelen, De leer der Wahhabieten, doctoral dissertation, Leyden 1927. That the Wahhābīs were not the first in Islām to question the legality of visiting tombs, and of the practices conne…

, Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā b. Sawra b. S̲h̲ahdād, the author ofone of the canonical or semi-canonical collections of traditions. The nisba al-Tirmid̲h̲ī connects him with Tirmid̲h̲, a place on the upper Āmū Daryā, at a distance of 6 leagues from Balk̲h̲ (about 37° Lat. N. and 67° Long. E. from Greenwich; cf. Ḳazwīnī, Nuzhat al-Ḳulūb, ed. and transl. Le Strange, G. M. S., xxiii., index, s. v.; Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, p. 440 sq. and map ix., facing p. 433), where he is said to have died in 279 (892—893); according to other reports, he died at Būg̲h̲,…

b. Hind, son of the Lak̲h̲mid prince al-Mund̲h̲ir and of Hind, a woman of the tribe of Kinda. After his father’s death he became “king” at al-Ḥira (554—570 A. D.). He was a warlike ruler and, like his house, very cruel. It is well-known how he sent the poets al-Mutalammis and Ṭarafa to his governor in Baḥrain, with letters ordering their death. By reason of his harsh character, he bore the surname of Muḍarriṭ al-Ḥid̲j̲āra (“he who makes stones crack”). He was also called Muḥarriḳ (“burning”). As …

(a., plur. rawātib), a word meaning what is fixed and hence applied to certain nonobligatory ṣalāts or certain litanies. The term is not found in the Ḳurʾān nor as a technical term in Ḥadīt̲h̲. On the first meaning see the article nāfila, p. 826a. As to the second, it is applied to the d̲h̲ikr which one recites alone, as well as to those which are recited in groups. We owe to M. Snouck Hurgronje a detailed description of the rawātib practised in Atchin. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjèhers, Batavia—Leyden 1893—1894, ii. 220 sqq. English transl, by O’Sullivan, The Acheh…

, the name of an individual ortribe which occupies the same position in Muslim genealogy as Aram in Biblical, as may be seen from a comparison of the Muslim series ʿŪṣ b. Iram b. Sām b. Nūḥ with the Biblical ʿŪṣ b. Aram b. Shem b. Noah. The Muslim line probably, like many others, entered historiography under Jewish influence and therefore gives us no new information regarding the dissemination of Aramaeans in Arabia. The name is identified with that of the Iram Ḏh̲āt al-ʿImād discussed below, th…

has exercised a considerable influence on the dogmatics of Islām; his tradition has been kept up especially in the school of al-Māturīdī [q. v.] and its adepts in Samarḳand. The only authentic document by Abū Ḥanīfa which has come down to us is his letter to ʿUt̲h̲mān al-Battī (unedited), in which he defends his Murd̲j̲itic [cf. al-murd̲j̲iʾa] views in an urbane way. The Fiḳh Akbar (II) which is ascribed to him in the Fihrist and by later tradition, is an ʿaḳīda representing an early stage of scholastic theology, possibly composed in the first half of the tenth century a. d. This work must be…

(the forms with the article are also found), the names of the two angels who examine and if necessary punish the dead in their tombs. To the ¶ examination in the tomb the infidels and the faithful — the righteous as well as the sinners — are liabie. They are set upright in their tombs and must state their opinion regarding Muḥammad. The righteous faithful will answer, that he is the Apostle of Allāh; thereupon they will be left alone till the Day of Resurrection. The sinners and the infidels, on the other hand, will have …

b. Barak̲h̲yā (Hebrew Asaf b. Berekyah), name of the alleged Wazīr of King Solomon. According to the legend he was Solomon’s confidant, and always had access to him. When the royal consort Ḏj̲arāda was worshipping idols Āṣaf delivered a public address in which he praised the apostles of God, Solomon among them but only for the excellent qualities he had manifested in his youth. Solomon in anger thereat took him to task, bnt was reproved for the introduction of idol-worship at the court. This was then done away with and the consort punished; the king became repentant. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliogra…

b. zaid b. ʿamr b. nufail ….. b. kaʿb b. luʾaiy, one of Muḥammad’s earliest companions. His mother was Fāṭima bint Baʿd̲j̲a b. Umaiya of the clan of Ḵh̲uzāʿa. His kunya is Abu ’l-Aʿwar or Abū T̲h̲awr. He was one of ʿUmar b. al-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb’s cousins and at the same time his brother-in-law through his wife, who was ʿUmar’s sister, as well as through ʿUmar’s wife who was his sister. He assumed Islām before Muḥammad entered the house of Zaid b. al-Aiḳam and ʿUmar’s conversion is said to have taken place under the influence of Saʿīd and his family. His father, Zaid b. ʿAmr, was one of the ḥanīf’s; he was muc…

, the prophet who, according to the Ḳurʾān, appeared among the ʿĀd [q. v.]. He is represented as one of their kinsmen ( ak̲h̲) and his genealogy (which is transmitted in various forms), therefore coincides in part with that of their founder ʿĀd. He is also identified with ʿĀbir (the Biblical ʿEber, the ancestor of the Hebrews); in another reference he is called the son of ʿĀbir [q. v.]. His figure is even more shadowy than the picture of his people and like every warner he is represented in the same position as Muḥamm…

(a.), intention. The acts of ceremonial law, obligatory or not, require to be preceded by a declaration by the performer, that he intends to perform such an act. This declaration, pronounced audibly or mentally, is called nīya. Without it, the act would be bāṭil [q. v.]. The nīya is required before the performance of the ʿibādāt, such as washing, bathing, prayer, alms, fasting, retreat, pilgrimage, sacrifice. “Ceremonial acts without nīya are not valid”, says G̲h̲azālī ( Iḥyāʾ, Cairo 1282, iv. 316). Yet a survey of the opinions of the lawyers regarding the nīya in conne…

or al-Masīḥ al-Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl (rarely al-Kad̲h̲d̲h̲āb: Buk̲h̲ārī, Fitan, bāb 26 and al-Masīḥ al-ḍalāl: Ṭayālisī, N°. 2532), the Muslim Antichrist. The word is not found in the Ḳurʾān; it is probably an Aramaic loan-word. In Syriac it is found as an epithet of the Antichrist, e. g. in Matthew xxiv. 24 where the Pes̲h̲itta translates ψευδόχριστον by mes̲h̲īḥē daggālē. We also find in Syriac nebīyā daggālā “pseudo-prophet”, s̲h̲āhedā daggālā “false witness” etc. On the other hand, the existence in Arabic of the verb dad̲j̲ala with the meaning “to deceive”, given in the lexicons w…

, Bilpai or Pilpai is the form usual ¶ in the west, of the name of the author of the Kalīla wa-Dimna; this form may be traced to the Arabic Bīdbā or Bīdbāh. The Syriac version of the book (compiled from the Pahlavi) has the name Bidug or Bidwag. This form is said by Benfey to be derived from the Sanskrit vidyāpati which means “lord of knowledge”. All that we know of this (legendary) personage is given in the preface by Bahnūd b. Sahwān, alias ʿAlī b. al-S̲h̲āh al-Fārisī, to the Arabic version of the Kalīla wa-Dimna. This can only be briefly given here and the reader may be referred for oth…

the name of the fourth letter of the Arabic alphabet with the numerical value 500. Its form is a horizontal stroke, curved upwards at its ends, with three dots above it. By these three dots it is distinguished from the third letter of the alphabet, tāʾ [q. v.], which has two dots only. This similarity explains also the place of t̲h̲āʾ immediately after tāʾ. Of the other Semitic alphabets it is only the South-Arabic which has a special form for the sound t̲h̲. Etymologically t̲h̲āʾ corresponds to Canaanitic , Aramaic (early-Aramaic ), Assyrian s̲h̲, Aethiopic . In Arabian its place is some…

, (plur. ḥirāb) spear. According to the Arab lexicographers, the ḥarba is smaller than the rumḥ and larger than the ʿanaza [q. v.]. It has the same function as the latter in Muslim ceremonial; we therefore find in some traditions that in Muḥammad’s time an ʿanaza, in others a ḥarba was used as sutra [q. v.] (cf. the chapter sutrat al-muṣallī in the different collections of tradition). It has been supposed that the erection of a sutra at the salāṭ had originally a protective object; in agreement with this is the fact that, according to some traditions, when the Prophet went…

, the Biblical prophet Elias, is twice mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. In; Sūra vi. 83 he is mentioned with Zakarīyāʾ, Yaḥyā, and ʿĪsā as one of the ṣāliḥūn without further details. In Sūra xxxvii. 123—130 his history is related in the fashion which is stereotyped for all stories of prophets in the Ḳurʾān. That Muḥammad however knew something more of him is clear from the mention of the Baʿl, which is differently interpreted by the commentators, sometimes as lord, sometimes as an idol who has given his name to the town of Baalbe…

(a.), board, tablet; the first meaning is found in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra, liv. 13, where Noah’s ark is called d̲h̲āt alwāḥ. The second meaning is that of lawh as writing material, e.g. the tablets of the lawḥ (Sura, vii. 142, 149, 153, where the plural alwāḥ is used; see Lisān, iii. 421). Al-dawāt wa ’l-lawḥ (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr al-Ḳurʾān, Sūra, iv., bāb 18) corresponds to our “paper and ink”. The expression mā baina ’l-lawḥain “what lies between the two boards” is found in Ḥadīt̲h̲, to describe the whole Ḳurʾān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr, Sūra lix., bāb 4; Libās, bāb 84); cf. mā baina ’l-daffatain (Buk̲h̲ār…