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(Βάκτρος). [English version] [1] Einwohner von Baktra oder Baktria Einwohner der Stadt Baktra oder des Landes Baktria (daher gewöhnlich ὁ Βάκτριος und Βακτριανός), s. Dion. Per. 736 (GGM II p. 150), Nonn. Dion. 25,374, Strab. 11,11,3 u.a. Treidler, Hans (Berlin) Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) [English version] [2] Südlicher Nebenfluß des Oxos Südlicher Nebenfluß des Oxos (Āmū-daryā), h. Balḫāb (Curt. 7,4,31; Plin. nat. 6,48; Strab. 11,11,2 u.a.); identisch mit dem Araxes bei Aristot. meteor. 1,13,16 und Ps.-Plut. de fluv. 23, der nach Plin. 1,13,1…

[English version] Fluß im westl. Zentralasien, h. Syr-darja, 2860 km lang; entspringt am Taidyk-Paß im östl. Altaigebirge, nimmt nach kurzem nördl. Lauf von Osten den unweit des Sees Issyk-Kul entspringenden Naryn auf, betritt sw von Taschkent (wo er schiffbar wird) die Ebenen von Kasachstan und mündet in den Aralsee (Amm. 23,6,59). Die einheimischen Skythen nannten den I. Silis bzw. Orxantes, Alexander d.Gr. Tanais (Plin. nat. 6,49; Arr. an. 3,30-7-8 u.ö., aber auch I. Arr. an. 7,16,3 u.a.), im H…

[English version] (Βάρις ὄρος). Der ant. Name für den höchsten Berg Armeniens (Armenia), den Ararat (5165 m). Die quellenmäßige Grundlage hierfür ist Nikolaos von Damaskos, bei Ios. ant. Iud. 1, p. 95; S. 18 Niese. Das Β.Ο. gehörte der armenischen Landschaft Μινουάς an (h. Manawazeau) und befand sich südwestl. des alten Artaxata (h. Artašat). Treidler, Hans (Berlin) Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Bibliography Atlas of the World II. Dardanelles, Bosporus, Turkey East, 1959, Pl. 37.

[English version] (Βάκτρα). Handels- und Residenzstadt an der Kreuzung zweier Karawanenstraßen in Nordafghanistan. Urspr. Ζαρίασπα (Arr. 3,1,5,71; Pol. 10,49) bzw. Zariastes (Plin. nat. 6,48). Heute dicht besiedelt, daher nur Grabungen am Rande des Tells. 206 v.Chr. belagerte Antiochos III. vergeblich Euthydemos, der von hier aus das graeco-baktrische Reich aufbaute (Baktria). 1966 erbrachte ein Hortfund über 170 griech. Münzen aus der Zeit vor 380 v.Chr. Bis h. bewohnt und befestigt. Treidler, Hans (Berlin) Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Bibliography F.R. Allchin, N. Hammo…

[English version] (Δράψακα). Erstmalig in Verbindung mit den Feldzügen Alexanders [4] d.Gr. erwähnte Stadt in Baktria, auch in den Namensformen Δάραψα und Δρέψα belegt (Arr. an. 3,29,1; Strab. 15,725; Ptol. 6,12,6; 8,23,13 N; Steph. Byz. p. 218). In dem h. Landschaftnamen Andarāb nördl. Kābul (Hindukusch) hat sich die Form Δάραψα erhalten, während das h. Qunduz als das ant. D. zu betrachten ist [1]. Ptolemaios rechnet D. zur Sogdiana und erwähnt zugleich die Bewohner (6,12,4: Δρεψιανοί). Das von P…

[English version] (Καυκάσιαι Πύλαι). Paß im Kaukasos, nur bei Plin. nat. 6,30 erwähnt; identisch mit der h. Georg. Heerstraße, bei Ptol. 5,8,9 als Σαρματικαὶ Πύλαι ( Sarmatikaí Pýlai) bezeichnet. Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Treidler, Hans (Berlin)

[German version] A river in  Bactria, which rises in the Paraponisus and supposedly joins the  Ochus to the west of the Zariaspes (Balhāb), and then flows together with the Ochus into the Oxus ( Araxes [2]). In fact there were two different rivers called Ochus, confused by Ptolemy: the Zariaspes (Balḫāb) and the Harērud. The former must be the one referred to here, which joins the Oxus, as the D. or Qunduz river (Arabic Nahr al-Ḍarġm̄) flows into the latter. Ptolemy (or his predecessor Marinus) ma…

[German version] (Greek Γανδαρικὴ χώρα / Gandaríkē chṓra; Ethnic groups: Gandarai, Gandarioi), district on the Kābul. According to Herodotus (3,91), the Gandarioi, together with the tribes of the Sattagydai, Aparytai and Dadikai, formed the ancient Persian Empire's seventh satrapy, which essentially covered the Kabulistan alpine territory intersected by the Cophen, between Paropanisos (Hindu Kush) and the upper Indus, and the mountain range itself. In spite of difficult passes along the Cophen, the routes through G. were used, from at least the 4th cent. B…

[German version] [1] Caucasian landscape Caucasian landscape on the middle to lower  Cyrus (Kura) (Str. 11,4; Ptol. 5,11). The main city was Cabavla (Plin. HN 6,29 Cabalaca, Mount Kalak's name today is a reminder). The Ἀλβάνιαι πύλαι ( Albániai pýlai; Ptol. 5,9,15; 12,6) are presumably identical to the eastern Caucasian pass of Khacmȃz. Cabala and other cities in Albania have been excavated. A rock inscription on the Kobystan Cliff of the Caspian Sea verifies the advance of Domitian's XII legion (around AD 80). Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Bibliography L. Bretanizki, B. Weimarn, B.…

[German version] Eastern Iranian people (Σαράγγαι, Sarángai, in Hdt. 3,93) on the lower course of the  Etymander (the modern Hilmand/Helmand Rūd); the country itself was called  Drangiana, and that seems in any case to be the Medio-Persian form. Together with some tribes of the central desert and Carmania, the Sarangae appear in Herodotus as linked to a tax district, on the southern side of the Parthians and Hyrcanians. In the army of Xerxes the Sarangai bore Median weaponry (Hdt. 7,67,1). A legendary cycle is bound up with the hero-names Keršāsp and Rōstam. Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Du…

[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Achaemenids | Sassanids | Alexander | Graeco-Bactria | Graeco-Bactria (Μαράκανδα, ἡ Μαρακάνδα; Marákanda, hē Marakánda), modern Afrasiab/Samarkand, founded as an oasis city at the end of the 14th cent. BC in the fertile plain of the Polytimetus (modern Serafšān), old capital of Sogdiana (Arr. Anab. 3,30,6), the size of 60 stadia (Curt. 7,6,10). Trading centre for trade to the north and east (finds from the Tang period). There is hardly any information about the period before Alexander [4] the …

[German version] I. General points Climate is the sum of the weather phenomena occurring in a given region over longer periods of time. In combination with the nature of the soil, the water resources and other natural conditions it determines the possibility of human existence. Natural irregularities lead to differences in the energy radiation on to the earth's surface, the circulation of air masses and therefore the distribution of moisture. Changes affect in particular those areas on the limits of …

[German version] (Σαββαθά/ Sabbathá: Peripl. m. r. 27; Σάββαθα/ Sábbatha: Ptol. 8,14,22; Sabota: Plin. HN 6,155 and 12,52; corruption Χαβάτανον/ Chabátanon and variant: Str. 16,4,2; inscription Šabwat; already in the Arabic geographers in the form Šabwa: Hamdānī, Ǧazīra Müller 87; 98; Yāqūt, Muǧam Wüstenfeld 3,257). Maepha was the southern, S. the northern capital of Ḥaḍramaut in southern Arabia. Important for trade in incense, S. was the seat of Īlazz II. Yaliṭ (= Ἐλέαζος/ Eléazos, Peripl. m. r. 27) c. AD 29. S. was probably destroyed c. 200 by Yadail Bayyin of Ḥaḍramaut,…

[German version] River in  Bactria, which rises in the Parapanisus and flows northwards to join the Oxus ( Araxes [2]) east of the Zariaspes, and which used to supply the region of Choana (today known as Qunduz) with water. Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (Liege) Bibliography W. Henning, Surkh Kotal, in: BSO(A)S, 1956, 366f. Id., The Bactrian inscription, in: BSO(A)S, 1960, 47-55.

[German version] A. Hellenism and Roman era The highlands south and south-west of the Caucasus. Main river is the  Araxes (today Aras). Northern border river Cyrus (today Kura), also upper reaches and tributaries of Tigris and Euphrates. Lakes: Lichnitis (today Sevan), Thospitis (today Van) and Matianus (Urmia). Holy mountain  Baris (5165 m, today Ararat), preserves the pre-classical name of Urartu of a state with Hurrite population, who under Persian rule became part of the Haikh (= Armenians). The Indo-European language was similar to Phry…

[German version] This item can be found on the following maps: Alexander (Προφθασία/ Prophthasía, Str. 11,8,9; 15,2,8; Ptol. 6,19,4; 8,25,8 N.; Isidorus of Charax, Stathmoí Parthikoí 16 = GGM 1,253: Φρά/ Phrá in Ἀναύων χώρα/ Anaúōn chṓra that is otherwise unknown; Plin. HN 6,61: P.). Possibly the city of Φράδα/ Phráda (Charax of Pergamum FGrH 103 F 20) renamed in this way by Alexander [4] the Great probably in 330 BC in the region of Drangiana, generally identified with modern Farāh in Afghanistan. Olshausen, Eckart (Stuttgart) Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Bibliography H. Treidler, s. …

[German version] (Κερκέται; Kerkétai). Tribe on the north-eastern coast of the  Pontus Euxinus on the slopes of the Caucasus. The name of what are today the Circassians was known to Greek geographers early on, but the details they provide about where the C. lived do not agree with each other (according to Str. 11,492; 496f. between the  Heniochi and the  Moschi). Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Danoff, Christo (Sofia) Bibliography W. Kroll, s.v. Kerketai, RE 11, 291f. T. M. Minajeva, Archaeological Research in the Land of the Circassians (Russian), 1953, 34ff. Ch. Danoff, s.v. Pontos E…

[German version] (Σακαστανή/ Sakastanḗ: Isidorus of Charax, Stathmoí Parthikoí 18 = GGM 1,253). The land on the middle course of the Etymander (Helmand), between Arachosia and Drangiana, occupied since the 2nd cent. BC by Sacae, also called Paraetacene by Isidorus of Charax. When the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares conquered the Indian land of the Saces, it appears that he also occupied Arachosia and Sacastane. Ardašīr (Ardashir [1] I), the first Sassanid king (224-241), conquered the land of Sacast…

[German version] [1] City in Bactria A city in Bactria, named only by Arr. Anab. 3,29,1, apart from Bactra (today Balch) the greatest city of this land, and probably identical with the present-day Tashkurgan [1]. In the castle of A., Alexander left behind a garrison in 329 BC. Brentjes, Burchard (Berlin) Bibliography 1 Atlas of the World II, Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, 1959, pl. 31. [German version] [2] Mountain fortress near the Indus Mountain fortress near the Indus, allegedly conquered by Hercules and then by Alexander 328 BC (Arr. Anab. 4,28,1; Ind. 5,10; A…

[English version] Fluß in Baktria, der im Paroponisos entspringt und sich westl. vom Zariaspes (Balḫāb) dem Ochos anschließen soll, um mit diesem vereint in den Oxos (Araxes [2]) zu münden. Faktisch gab es zwei verschiedene, von Ptolemaios verwechselte Flüsse namens Ochos: den Zariaspes (Balḫāb) und den Harērud Nur der erste kann gemeint sein, mit dem der Oxos sich vereinigt, nachdem der D. oder Qunduz-Fluß (arab. Nahr al-Ḍarġm̄) in letzteren eingemündet ist. Ptolemaios (oder sein Vorganger Marino…