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, the father of Abū Sufyān and father-in-law of Abū Lahb [ qq.v.], one of the leading figures of Mecca in his day. He is said to have been the first to use Arabic writing, and one of the first to renounce wine. A companion of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, he succeeded him ¶ as war-leader, and led the clan of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams and, according to some traditions, all Ḳurays̲h̲ in the so-called sacrilegious war [see fid̲j̲ār ]. After his death the leadership is said to have passed to the Banū Hās̲h̲im. The story of his contest of merits and subsequent quarrel with ʿAb…

, Sunḳur (t.), one of the many words in Turkish denoting birds of prey. In the modern Turkic languages, and probably always, it means the gerfalcon, falco gyrfalco (Sir Gerard Clauson, An etymological dict. of pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 838a). Maḥmūd al-Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī says that it was a raptor smaller than the ṭog̲h̲ri̊l ( Dīwān lug̲h̲āt al-turk , tr. Atalay, iii, 381). The term became frequently used as a personal name in mediaeval Islamic times, both alone and in such combinations as Aḳ/Ḳara Sonḳor “White/Black Gerfalcon”, cf. J. Sauvaget, Noms et surnoms de Mamelouk …

, the Amīr, lord of Hamad̲h̲ān, played an important rôle in the struggles for the throne between the rival Sald̲j̲ūḳ princes Barkiyāruḳ and Muḥammad I. After having first taken the side of the latter, in 494/1100 he went over to the side of Barkiyāruḳ, ¶ and, after the latter’s death, became the Atabeg of his son Maliks̲h̲āh, who was a minor. He could not, however, hold his own against Muḥammad, and was treacherously murdered by him in 499/1105. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, x, 199 ff. Houtsma, Receuil, ii, 90 see also barkiyāruḳ and muḥammad b. maliks̲h̲āh.

(this, though illogical, is the normal order of the words), “those who are qualified to unbind and to bind”, the representatives of the community of the Muslims who act on their behalf in appointing and deposing a caliph or ¶ another ruler [see bayʿa]. They must be Muslims, male, of age, free, ʿadl [ q.v.], and capable of judging who is best qualified to hold the office. No fixed number of “electors” is required; according to the prevailing opinion, even the appointment made by one “elector” in the presence of two qualified witnesses is valid. This…

, pl. d̲j̲usūr (Ar., cf. Fränkel, Aram. Fremdwörter im Arab historians asArabischen , 285), “bridge”, is more particularly, though by no means exclusively, a bridge of boats in opposition to ḳanṭara [ q.v.], an arched bridge of stone. An incident in the history of the conquest of Babylonia has become celebrated among the Arab historians as yawm al-d̲j̲isr “the day of [the fight at] the bridge”: in 13/634 Abū ʿUbayd al-T̲h̲aḳafī was defeated and slain in battle against the Persians at a bridge across the Euphrates near Ḥīra; cf. Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten ,…

(t.), the common Turkish word for “water”, originally suv (which explains the form suy before vowel-initial possessive suffixes, e.g. suyu “his water”), the form still found in South-West Turkmen, in Ottoman orthography ṣū . The word is found frequently in the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions, often in the phrase yer suv = “territory”, i.e. an area containing both land and water in the form of rivers, lakes, etc. (see Sir Gerald Clauson, An etymological dictionary of prethirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 783-4). In Central Asia and in the Turkicised northern tier of the Midd…

He is cited among the “famous ¶ pupils” of Ibn al-Ṣaffār [ q.v.] by Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī, who presents him moreover as very knowledgeable in grammar, Ḳurʾān, theoretical and practical law, and appreciates highly his character and conduct. He mentions as his principal pupils Ibn al-Layt̲h̲, Ibn al-D̲j̲allal and Ibn al-Ḥayy. The first, Muḥammad b. Aḥmad, was an expert in the field of arithmetic and geometry and devoted himself to astronomical observations, at the same time as performing the functions of ḳāḍī of S̲h̲urriyūn (Surio), in the region of Játiva. …

, the Ottoman Turkish name for the Vardar , Grk. Axios, a river of the southern Balkans. It rises in the Šar Mountains near where Macedonia, Albania and the region of Kosovo meet, and flows northeastwards and then in a southeastern and south-south-eastern direction through the present (Slavic) Macedonian Republic [see maḳadūnyā ], past Skopje or Üsküb [ q.v.] and through Greek Macedonia to the Gulf of Salonica. Its length is 420 km/260 miles. The lower valley of the Vardar probably passed into Ottoman Turkish hands around the time of the first Turkish capture of Salonica in 1387 [see selānīk …

(a.) or ʿāriya , also iʿāra , the loan of non-fungible objects ( prêt à usage, commodatum ). It is distinguished as a separate contract from the ḳarḍ or loan of money or other fungible objects ( prêt de consommation, mutuum ). It is defined as putting some one temporarily and gratuitously in possession of the use of a thing, the substance of which is not consumed by its use. The intended use must be lawful. It is a charitable contract and therefore "recommended" ( mandūb ), and the beneficiary or borrower enjoys the privileged position of a trustee ( amīn ); he is not, in …

, a Persian word meaning the song of the nightingale, and hence by extension fame, repute, and loud cries of various kinds. In Turkish usage it is applied more particularly to the call of the muezzin [see ad̲h̲ān ] and to the Muslim war-cry ( Allāhu Akbar and Allāh Allāh ). In the Ottoman Empire it was used of certain ceremonial and public prayers and acclamations, more specifically those of the corps of Janissaries [see yeñi Čeri ]. Such prayers were recited at pay parades and similar occasions, at the beginning of a campaign, when they were accomp…

, literally “will”, a term adopted in Ottoman official usage from 1832 to designate decrees and orders issued in the name of the Sultan. The formal procedure was for draft decrees prepared by ministers and officials to be addressed to the Sultan’s chief secretary ( Serkātib-i s̲h̲ahriyārī ), who read them to the Sultan and received and noted his comments. If he approved, the chief secretary then communicated the text to the Grand Vizier, as the Sultan’s will. Under the constitution, the Sultan’s function was limited to giving his assent to the decisions of the government. The term Irāde …

, a small town and fortress, formerly in the native state of Ḥaydarābād, now in the S̲h̲olapur District of Maharas̲h̲tra State of the Indian Union (lat. 18° 16′ N., long 75° 27′ E.) The fortress is attributed, like many of those in the Deccan, to the Bahmanī minister Maḥmūd Gāwān [ q.v.], i.e. to the third quarter of the 9th/15th century, but may well be earlier [see burd̲j̲. III. at vol. I, 1323b]. Parendā was for a short time the capital of the Niẓām S̲h̲āhīs [ q.v.] after the capture of Aḥmadnagar [ q.v.] by Akbar’s forces in 1014/1605, but was conquered by Awrangzīb when he was gove…

, an ethnic designation stemming from Lamaṭa, a quarter of the Moroccan town of Sid̲j̲ilmāssa, borne in particular by two mystics: 1. Aḥmad al-Ḥabīb b. Muḥammad al-G̲h̲umārī b. Ṣālīḥ al-Ṣiddīḳī (since he traced his genealogy back to ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr) al-Ṣid̲j̲ilmāssī , who belonged to the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya order [ q.v.]; he had numerous pupils, including Abu ’l-ʿAbbās al-Hilālī [see al-Hilālī in Suppl.] and his cousin through his female relatives, Aḥmad b. al-Mubārak (see below). He died in the odour of sanctity at Sid̲j̲ilmāssa on 4 Muḥarram 1165/23 November 1751. Bibliograph…

, a small settlement on the Ḵh̲awr al-ʿUdayd, a creek on the southeastern coast of the Ḳaṭar [ q.v.] peninsula on the southern Gulf shores (iat 24° 33′ N., long. 51° 30′ E.). It lies in the area of the undefined frontier between Ḳaṭar and Abū Ẓaby [ q.v.], one of the constituent shaykhdoms of the United Arab Emirates [see al-imārāt al-ʿarabiyya al-muttaḥida , in Suppl.]. (Ed.) Bibliography See those to abū Ẓaby and Ḳaṭar.

, the name of three districts of Anatolia in early Ottoman times. 1. In 699/1299-1300, ʿOt̲h̲mān I b. Ertog̲h̲rul gave his commander Ṭorg̲h̲ud Alp [ q.v.] the district of Inegöl just to the east of Bursa. The name Ṭorg̲h̲ud Eli appears in the early historians ʿĀs̲h̲i̊k-pas̲h̲a-zāde and Nes̲h̲rī, but disappears by the 10th/16th century. 2. A place in the Tas̲h̲li̊ḳ Silifke area on the southern coast of Anatolia in Ḳaramānid times. 3. A place in the steppe lands of Aḳ S̲h̲ehir and Aḳ Sarāy in the hands of the Ṭorg̲h̲ud Bey family during the 9th-10th/15th-16th centuries. (Ed.) Bibliography İA, …

, patriarch, the form found in Ottoman Turkish (see Redhouse, Turkish and English lexicon, s.v.) for the Patriarchs of the Greek Orthodox and Eastern Christian Churches in the empire, of whom by the 19th century there were seven. It stems from the Arabic form biṭrīḳ/baṭrīḳ [ q.v.] “patricius”, confused with baṭriyark/baṭraḳ “patriarch”, also not infrequently found in mediaeval Arabic usage as faṭrak . See G. Graf, Verzeichnis arabischer kirchliche Termini 2, Louvain 1954, 84; C.E. Bosworth, Christian and Jewish religious dignitaries in Mamlûk Egypt and Syria ..., in IJMES, iii (197…

or menangkabau, the most numerous of the peoples of the island of Sumatra [ q.v.] in the Indonesian Republic (1980 population estimate, 6 million). They inhabit the Padang highlands of west-central Sumatra, but there are also appreciable numbers of Minangkabau emigrants, including to Negro Sembilan in the Malay peninsula [ q.v.]. Originally under Indonesian cultural and religious influence, as the centre of the Hindu-Malayan empire of Malayu, by the early 17th century much of their land had become Muslim through the influence of the Sultanate of Atjèh [ q.v.] at the northern tip of…

or Banū Nīsān, the name of a family of ruʾasāʾ (pl. of raʾīs [ q.v.]), of a fabulous richness, who held power at Āmid [see diyār bakr ] in the 6th/12th century under the nominal suzerainty of the Inālid [ q.v.] Turcomans. They even placed their name on coins. Their rule came to an end with the conquest of the town by Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn [ q.v.], who accused them of having cultivated the friendship of, and even to have provided assistance for, the Assassins [see Ḥas̲h̲īs̲h̲iyya ]. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, xi, 103, 297 Abū S̲h̲āma, ii, 39 Cl. Cahen, Mouvements populaires, in Arabica, v/3 (1958),…

means both the sacrifices of a victim and the victim itself. In addition to the religious sacrifices studied in the art. d̲h̲abīḥā , there exist a host of others, meant for special occasions ( dbīḥa in Mag̲h̲ribī Arabic; Berber taməg̲h̲rust ; etc.), which have been treated at length in the art. dam above. On the blood sacrifices practised before the advent of Islam, see in particular ʿatīra and nad̲h̲r , and also J. Chelhod, Le sacrifice chez les Arabes , Paris 1955, and the bibliography cited there. (Ed.)

(Ar.), pl. d̲j̲azāʾir , a term which signifies essentially an island and secondarily a peninsula (for example D̲j̲azīrat al-Andalus , Spain; Ḏj̲azīrat al-ʿArab [see al-ʿarab , d̲j̲azīrat-]). By extension, This same word is applied also to territories situated between great rivers (see following article) or separated from the rest of a continent by an expanse of desert; it also designates a maritime country (see Asín Palacios, Abenházam de Cordoba , Madrid 1927-32, i, 291 n. 347) and, with or without a following al-nak̲h̲l , an oasis (see Dozy, Suppl ., s.v.). Finally, with the Ismāʿīlīs d…