Search

[English version] Angesichts der geringen Produktivität der ant. Landwirtschaft war es notwendig, das für den Getreideanbau, Weinbau und die Anpflanzung von Ölbäumen geeignete Land tatsächlich zu nutzen und zu kultivieren. Durch Terrassierung wurden Hügel und Gebirgshänge in Griechenland für den Anbau erschlossen, und Maßnahmen zur E. hatten die Funktion, Neuland zu gewinnen oder Land nach den winterlichen Regenfällen vor Überschwemmungen zu schützen. Die Voraussetzungen sind dabei in Griechenland…

[English version] Metall von einer geringen Härte, einem hohen spezifischen Gewicht (11,34) und einem niedrigen Schmelzpunkt (327°C); das wichtigste in der Natur vorkommende B.-Erz ist der B.-Glanz (Galenit; PbS), der in der Ant. wegen eines Silbergehaltes von bis zu 1% vor allem für die Gewinnung von Silber größere wirtschaftliche Bed. besaß. So wurde etwa das Silber von Laureion durch den Abbau und die Verhüttung von B.-Glanz gewonnen. Wichtige Lagerstätten befanden sich außer in Attika vor alle…

[English version] Während im Mittelmeerraum Flüssigkeiten wie Wein und Öl in großen Tonkrügen (πίθος, dolium) gelagert und in Tierhäuten oder Amphoren transportiert wurden, hat man seit dem frühen Prinzipat in den westl. Prov. und in Nordit. für die Lagerung und den Transport von Wein zunehmend auch H. verwendet (Oberit.: Strab. 5,1,8; 5,1,12; Alpen: Plin. nat. 14,132). Wie zahlreiche Reliefs und Grabskulpturen zeigen, wurden Weinfässer mit schweren, von Pferden gezogenen Wagen (Grabreliefs in Langres und Augsburg) oder auf Flüssen wie der Mosel mit …

[English version] Seitdem in Griechenland große Tempel aus Stein errichtet wurden (frühes 6. Jh. v.Chr.), standen die Architekten vor dem Problem, schwere Quadersteine für die Wände oder den Architrav und Säulentrommeln soweit zu heben, wie der Bauplan es notwendig machte. Dabei waren oft Lasten von einem beträchtlichen Gewicht zu bewältigen, denn immerhin wiegt Stein etwa 2,25 t/m3 und Marmor ca. 2,75 t/m3. In archa. Zeit hatten Blöcke für den Architrav ein Gewicht zwischen 10 und 40 t. Die Steine wurden zunächst über eine Rampe an ihren Platz gebrach…

[English version] (πορφύρα/ porphýra; lat. purpur) war ein in der Ant. für die Herstellung kostbarer Stoffe und Gewänder verwendeter Farbstoff (Färberei), der aus verschiedenen, im Mittelmeer lebenden Schneckenarten (Schnecke) gewonnen wurde; Aristoteles hat der P.-Schnecke lange Ausführungen gewidmet (Aristot. hist. an. 546b-547b); die wichtigste ant. Beschreibung der P.-Schnecken und der Herstellung des Farbstoffes findet sich bei Plinius (Plin. nat. 9,124-138). Wahrscheinlich ist das Verfahren, aus den Meeresschnecken Farbstoff zu gewinnen, zuerst von…

[English version] (ἐλέφας, lat. ebur) wurde aus den Stoßzähnen afrikan. und indischer Elefanten gewonnen und gehört wie Seide, Bernstein, Weihrauch und Pfeffer zu jenen kostbaren Gütern, die aus Gebieten außerhalb des Imperium Romanum importiert werden mußten; nach Plinius war E. das wertvollste Material, das Landtiere lieferten (Plin. nat. 37,204). Der Preis für E. war im 1.Jh. n.Chr. außerordentlich hoch; dennoch bestand ein Mangel an E., so daß man begann, auch die gewöhnlichen Knochen des Elef…

Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) RWG [English version] A. Einleitung (RWG) Als Bücher-Meyer-Kontroverse (BMK) wird in der neueren alt-histor. und wiss.-geschichtlichen Lit. die zw. 1893 und 1902 geführte Debatte über die grundlegenden Merkmale der ant. Wirtschaft bezeichnet. Ausgangspunkt dieser Diskussion war die 1893 erschienene Schrift Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft des Ökonomen Karl Bücher, der die Auffassung vertrat, für die Ant. sei eine Dominanz der Hauswirtschaft charakteristisch gewesen. Auf der dritten Versammlung dt. Historiker in…

[German version] In the time of the late Republic the word fiscus on the one hand referred to a container for storing money, on the other hand it already referred to public funds that were placed at the disposal of a promagistrate in the province (Cic. Verr. 2,3,197). Furthermore fiscus also meant the private assets of a Roman citizen. In the Principate period the fis cus was the cashier's office of the princeps; as he alone could dispose of the fiscus, he could also exercise considerable influence over politics by using these finances. This already applies to Augustus who …

[German version] I. General The study of the distribution of wealth in a society should offer information about the various types of wealth and their economic significance in a national economy and about the share of individuals or social groups in the overall national wealth. Because quantitative information on the economy and private wealth is only available in an extremely limited scope for Antiquity, the statistical methods of modern economics cannot be applied in the field of ancient economic h…

[German version] ( figlina). Building bricks and roof tiles were produced in brickyards close to clay deposits and then transported to the building sites. Because of their great weight, every effort was generally made to avoid long transport distances; for that reason, brick production was not concentrated in certain centres, but spread across all of Italy. Nonetheless, brickyards close to the coast, whose bricks could be transported by ship, supplied entire coastal regions; bricks of the figlina of Vibius Pansa near Ariminum can be found across the entire northern Adri…

[German version] (πορφύρα/ porphýra, Lat. purpur) was a dye (Dyeing) used in Antiquity for the manufacture of costly materials and garments. It was obtained from various species of sea-snails (Snails and slugs) living in the Mediterranean; Aristotle devoted lengthy disquisitions to the purple-snail (Aristot. Hist. an. 546b-547b), but the most important ancient description of the creature and the manufacture of the dye is found in Pliny (Plin. HN 9,124-138). It is likely that the technique of obtaining dye from sea-snails was first developed by the Phoenicians. In…

[German version] Derived from  pigmentum ('pigment'; cf. Plin. HN 33,111; 33,115; 33,158; 35,29; 37,81), the Latin word pigmentarius is the term for producers of and traders in pigments, ointments and perfumes ( unguenta). Representatives of this group are mentioned in Cicero and in inscriptions (Cic. Fam. 15,17,2; ILS 7604; 7605; CIL VI 9795). The workshop and store of a pigmentarius may be depicted in the house of the Vettii in Pompeii  [2. pl. XV 1]. The selling of poisons or love potions by a pigmentarius was punishable (Dig. 48,8,3,3; cf. Pharmakeía ). Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) Bi…

[German version] The great slave revolts in Roman Antiquity occurred within a comparatively narrow time span, in the 2nd and early 1st cents. BC; geographically, they centred around Sicily and southern Italy. The extent of these great revolts remains unique; bands formed by fugitive slaves never reached the same level either before or later, nor were they comparable with these revolts (Chios: Ath. 6,265d-266e; Bulla Felix in Italy: Cass. Dio. 77,10). Even though these rebellious movements of the u…

[German version] Modern term for alloys of iron with a carbon content of up to two per cent. In the blast-furnace process, however, the iron extracted has a much higher carbon content, which has to be reduced by means of a technical procedure (refining). In Antiquity there was an entirely different technical problem: Crude iron, the product of the smelting process, had only an extremely limited carbon content and was therefore relatively soft. The iron was therefore tempered by further forging in …

[German version] The Latin term opera was used to describe the output of work demanded of a worker in one day. This says nothing about that worker's legal status; he could be a freeman, freedman or a slave (Cic. Off. 1,41; cf. also the definition in Paulus, Dig. 38,1,1: “operae sunt diurnum officium”). The Roman agrarian writers use opera to determine precisely at what time certain work had to be done; in this way, it was possible to specify the speed of the work above and beyond the working hours and to calculate the number of slaves needed for a rural…

[German version] In modern industrial societies, the function of SP is to set up systems to prevent the occurrence of cases of hardship, and to protect individual citizens and groups of citizens from defined risks. A vital instrument of SP is social insurance, of the kind created in the German Empire between 1883 and 1889 (health insurance, accident insurance, old-age insurance); unemployment insurance followed during the Weimar Republic. Since that time, the actual concern in SP has been, on the …

[German version] The concept of materialism does not appear until the first half of the eighteenth century, and is first used polemically in the context of the criticism of materialist thought in Enlightenment philosophy, as antithesis of idealism or spiritualism (Kant). Here, only those teachings will be designated as materialism which (a) represent a monism which holds that all being can be reduced to one or more material principles, while (b) that which appears to be non-material is either an e…

[German version] The meagre productivity of ancient agriculture rendered the effective use and cultivation of any suitable land imperative for growing grain, viticulture, and planting olive trees. Hills and mountain slopes in Greece were prepared for cultivation through terracing, and drainage measures were used to gain virgin land or to protect land from flooding after the winter rains. The requirements were different in Greece and Italy: in the Greek interior, there are fairly large plains in which lakes are formed by surface inflow; run-off is often subsurface ( katavothra) and …

[German version] Metal of low hardness, high specific weight (11.34) and low melting point (327°C); the most important lead-ore to be found in nature is galena (galenite; PbS), due to its silver content of up to 1% of greater economic significance in antiquity, mainly for the extraction of silver. The silver of Laurium, for instance, was extracted by mining and smelting galena. Important deposits outside of Attica were located mainly in Spain, Sardinia and Britain. In antiquity, lead and tin were considered two types of one metal; in Latin, lead was called plumbum nigrum, tin plumbum cand…

Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) [German version] A. The Technology of Classical Antiquity as a Research Area (CT) Classical scholarship did not recognize ancient technology as the subject of a special discipline in its own right until late. Up to about 1980, investigations into problems of ancient technology by Classical historians, archaeologists and linguists were relatively rare, and only a few essays and monographs were generally devoted to the field; there were no general treatments of a scholarly standard, no…