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[German Version] 1. Johann Hinricha a. Biography (Apr 21, 1808, Hamburg – Apr 7, 1881, Hamburg). Wichern was born to a family of moderate means but high achievement. His father began as a clerk in a notary’s office but rose to become a notary himself; unfortunately he met an early death in 1823, leaving his large family (seven children) in poverty. Johann, the eldest, had entered the renowned Hamburg Johanneum Gymnasium at the age of ten, but when his father died he had to withdraw without finishing hi…

[German Version] I. Term and History The concept of the social state needs to be distinguished from that of the welfare state. The former emphasizes the responsibility and cooperation of all for socially just structures within a society; the latter tends to suggest a “nanny state” that guarantees social security (Security, Social) and is concerned primarily with the redistribution of social resources. The social state attaches great importance to subsidiarity, i.e. helping people to help themselves th…

[German Version] 1. Friedrich von, the Elder (Mar 6, 1831, Tecklenburg – Apr 2, 1910, Bethel) was one of a small group belonging to the ancient Prussian aristocracy who turned to theology in the middle of the 19th century and came to exercise enormous influence, less through their official positions than through their personality and family contacts. Under the influence of …

[German Version] (Mar 21, 1885, Altona – Oct 30, 1944, Gifhorn). The son of a mastertailor initially became a bookseller in his home city. By reading the journal Der Kunstwart [custodian of art], he came into contact with the German social movement and the Deutsch-Nationaler Handlungsgehilfenverband (DHV, German National Association of Commercial Clerks), for which he began working in 1907. As editor of the Deutsche Handelswacht [German business watch] beginning in 1911, he advocated the superiority of models of corporative self-governance over against a soci…

[German Version] I. History 1. Terminology. The use of the term “association” to denote the formal union of persons and bodies has been common since the 19th century, especially through its application in the legal area. Associations were and are also called societies, unions, corporations, cooperatives, federations, groups, initiatives, movements etc. Modern unions are defined as the voluntary union of originally separate forces to achieve a common aim. By their structural features of free choice and a common aim, they are essentially different…

[German Version] The White Cross is one of several independent associations founded in the second half of the 19th century within the spectrum of the religious denominations for the purpose of improving public morality. Inspired by the battle in England against the double morality of bourgeois society and the bordello system (J.E. Butler), especially against its “regulation” in restricted area, the Deutsch-evangelischer Verein zur Förderung der Sittlichkeit und der Rettungsarbeit was formed under …

[German Version] I. Definition Since the early 20th century, social work has been defined as “organized assistance on the part of the state and municipalities, public corporations, and private organizations . . . provided to individuals, families, and groups to avert internal and external hardship and meet their essential needs” (Heyne, 917). Related concepts are relief and social welfare. The term Sozialarbeit was accepted only gradually in Germany, obviously influenced by the Anglo-American term social work and the notion of social work as a distinct profession. II. Organiz…

[German Version] (Wichern Association), founded in 1908 by Martin Hennig, for the purpose of reviving the Christian faith among the population alienated from the church, primarily by distributing ¶ Bibles in missionary work among the people. During the Weimar Republic, the association under Walter Birnbaum put special emphasis on combating free thought (Free thinkers). Banned under National Socialism and refounded after the war, the association was dissolved in 2000. Jochen-Christoph Kaiser Bibliography K. Janssen, RGG 3 VI, 1962, 1680f. F.W. Bautz, “Hennig, Martin,” BBKL II, …

[German Version] (Aug 25, 1906, Kirchheim – Mar 13, 1986, Remagen). Gerstenmaier, the son of the manager of a piano factory in Württemberg, initially trained for a business career; after completing his Abitur, he began a second education in theology. The Christdeutsche Jugend of L. Cordier had a formative influence on him. After graduation as a student of F. Brunstäd in Rostock, Gerstenmaier went to Berlin, where he worked with T. Heckel in the church's foreign office. He became a member of the Confessing Church early on and j…

[German Version] I. Church History – II. Denominations – III. Diakonia Today I. Church History 1. General In Protestantism the act of Christian love in the form of care for the poor (Poor, Care of the) has long played an important role. After decreasing in importance in the thought of theology and the church in the 18th century and also diminishing in its practical …

[German Version] I. Establishment – II. History – III. Current Situation I. Establishment 1. Founders. The notion of caritas as social assistance to those in need deriving from a sense of Christian responsibility has existed as long as the church itself. However, the organizational unification of such efforts beyond the boundaries of the dioceses and without exclusive ties to the socio-charitable religious orders is a modern phenomenon, which did not emerge within Catholicism until…

[German Version] I. The International Red Cross Movement. Sympathy and concern for the victims of war first reached a substantial public in the Crimean War (1854–1856), when a report of the British nurse F. Nightingale (who had spent some time at Kaiserswerth, during her training) drew attention throughout Europe to conditions in the Crimea. Her report also made an impression on Henry Dunant (1828–1910), a businessman from an upper-class family in Geneva. At the end of June in the same year, he vis…

[German Version] 1. Adolf von (Jan 6, 1796, Berlin – Nov 23, 1882, Batzwitz [today Baszewice, Poland]), estate owner. As a young officer in Berlin, Thadden-Trieglaff came into contact with the Romantic conservative Christlich-Deutsche Tischgesellschaft; in 1816 he came into contact with the Catholic revival movement in southern Germany (Revival/Revival movements: I, 7). To the displeasure of church and state authorities, he established a homegroup on his estate; in its influential successor, O. v. Bi…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies We can speak of care for the poor in the sense of public and private relief of poverty only when there has been a certain degree of institutionalization. Religions have treated poor relief with varying degrees emphasis. It is important to distinguish caregivers (including families, clans, congregations, orders, foundations, societies, and associations), the kind of help given (material, personal, structural), and the recipients (different levels of poverty). The Greeks and Romans felt no obligation to help the poor, or at most a g…

[German Version] The Youth and Welfare Service was a creation of the Weimar Republic and its accelerated transformation of Germany into a social state. The “mixed economy of welfare” (Sachße & Tennstedt) involving both public and private providers of social services that developed in this setting required legislative regulations that were established by consensus in the early 1920s under the pressure of the postwar burdens. In the sphere of private welfare system, this meant primarily Caritas and …

[German Version] I. Medicine Sickness and healing are basic phenomena of human life and core concepts of any anthropology. Nevertheless defining them and the relationship between them still raises problems, not least because each is a collective term. There is debate within medicine over whether sickness and healing can be neutral categories, purely descriptive and empirical, with their meaning determined by the evolutionary function of the body and its organs. Other positions, mindful of historical…

[German Version] The town of Vandsburg in West Prussia, first mentioned in 1384, was Prussian until 1919, when it went to Poland as Więcbork. It was a center of the revival movement (Revival/Revival movements) that began in the 1890s under the influence of the Anglo-American Holiness movement. The movement’s spiritual leaders were the pastors Carl Ferdinand Blazejewski (1862–1900) from Borken (East Prussia; today Borki Male) and Theophil Krawielitzki (1866–1942) from Vandsburg. As a result of a co…

[German Version] Based on Hutterite tradition (L. Hutter), but independently in connection with religio-social pacifist and communitarian ideas (Neuwerk [New Work Movement]), the Protestant theologian E. Arnold, founded the first German Bruderhof in Sannerz near Schlüchtern in 1920. It was moved in 1931 to Neuhof near Fulda and renamed Rhön-Bruderhof; it was then recognized by the Hutterites in the USA as Bruderhof. From 1933, approx. 150 people lived and worked there until the National Socialists dissolved the Bruderhof and its members emigrated to …

[German Version] I. Social Science Subsidiarity is a principle that regulates the relationship between the state and non-state social agents. It presupposes personal responsibility on the part of individuals as well as limitation of public regulatory authority over them and the groups to which they belong. Human beings can exist only in social communities, into which they must be integrated. At the same time, their endowment with reason allows them to act on their own responsibility, and the communit…

[German Version] I. Terminology and Theory In its scientific exploration of the past, all historiography aims at a synthesis in the sense of a valid overview of what has gone before. At best, however, the quest can succeed only paradigmatically and typically, because any reconstruction of an histoire totale is doomed to failure. Nevertheless historiography cannot abandon the ven-¶ ture of viewing history (History/Concepts of history) as a whole, because otherwise the incalculable mass of detail would rule out any interpretation of historical processes. …