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[German Version] In Mesopotamia, the elders constituted a body of local authorities, as already in the Gilgamesh Epic ( TUAT III, 658, 686; cf. 549ff.). The functions of city elders in the OT ( ziqnê hā'îr) included ritual (1 Kgs 21), political (Judg 8; 1 Kgs 12; 2 Kgs 10), and legal (Deut 21:18ff.; Lam 5:14) tasks. In the Pentateuch, the elders of Israel participate in the theophany and covenant at Sinai (Exod 24), and are present at Aaron's first sacrifice (Lev 9:1). Deuteronomistic h…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies The worldwide significance that trees and plants have in cultus and mythology is connected to the essential relationship between plants, animals and human beings. Trees and plants …

[German Version] I. Linguistics – II. Philosophy – III. Religious Studies – IV. Philosophy of Religion – V. Old Testament – VI. New Testament – VII. Church History – VIII. Judaism – IX. Islam…

[German Version] Jehoshaphat, Judean king (868–847 bce), whose story is told in 1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1–38, 41–51; 2 Kgs 3:1–27; 12:19; 1 Chr. 3:10, and 2 Chr. 17:1–21:1. In his time, Judah (see also Tribes of Israel) became heavily dependent on the northern kingdom of Israel (II, 1) so that one can almost speak of a veiled vassal relationship. 1 Kgs 22 is based on a war account in which the king of the northern kingdom is not mentioned by name. 2 Kgs 3 is an account into which the Elisha episode in vv. 9b-…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies In the classical phenomenology of religion, the universalism/particularism dichotomy denotes the difference between universal religions (Typology of religion) and so-called folk religions (Folk piety); the latter are “limited to a single people,” whereas the former “spread to include many peoples” (Mensching, 286f.) and proclaim a “universal” message, addressed in principle to all humanity. The universal religions are primarily those with founding figures: Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, but also Manichaeism; but Mensching’s classification also allows for universal religions without a founder, like the Hellenistic mystery religions. He identified the “two basic forms of universal religion” in the “polarity” of mystical and prophetic religions (Mensching, 294). Other religions, especially the religion of Israel (II, 3), have universalizing tendencies (see II below); in a different way – particularly in its emphasis on the “One” (Monism: I) –, Hinduism exhibits similar tendencies. In the context of a typology of religions, a reduction in the plurality of gods “in the direction of singularity” can be identified with an orientation to notions of God “of the universalistic type” (Colpe, 429). Among new religious movements, too, there are numerous groups that consider themselves universal religions because they claim to grasp the message common to all religions (cf. generally Figl). In interpreting the relationship between universalism and particularism, it must also be remembered that today numerous smaller or ethnically defined religions are present …

[German Version] (Feb 3, 1786, Nordhausen – Oct 23, 1842, Halle). After studies at Helmstedt and Göttingen, ¶ Gesenius was appointed professor at Halle in 1810; his lectures on the OT drew as many as 500 people. As compiler of the first corpus of Phoenician inscriptions, he was the father of Northwest Semitic epigraphy (I); he also pioneered the field of Samaritan studies and deciphered O…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. Early Judaism – IV. New Testament – V. Church History – VI. Systematic Theology – VII. Practical Theology – VIII. Law – IX. Missiology I. Religious Studies Over the course of history, the word office has been used for a wide variety of functions. In every case, however, what is peculiar to the term is that it refers to an activity independent of the unique personal characteristics of the officeholder. In the context of religious studies, what first comes to mind is the office of priest, as found in many religions. Roles with religious overtones like shaman, sorcerer, or wizard, particularly common in tribal societies, shou…

[German Version] I. History of Religion – II. Old Testament – III. New Testament – IV. Church History – V. Dogmatics – VI. Ethics – VII. Practical Theology – VIII. Church Law – IX. Judaism – X. Islam I. History of Religion In the following comments the term community will refer exclusively to a religiously motivated association of people. From the standpoint of the history of religion, the formation of communities is more the exception than the rule. The fact that associations such as tribes, as well, howe…

[English Version] I. Religionswissenschaftlich In der klassischen Religionsphänomenologie meint man mit der Bez. U. bzw. P. die Unterscheidung von Universal- (Religionstypologie) und sog. Volksrel. (Volksfrömmigkeit/Volksreligion); die letzteren blieben »auf ein einzelnes Volk beschränkt«, während sich die ersteren »über viele Völker verbreitet haben« (Mensching 286f.) und eine »universale«, d.h. prinzipiell an alle Menschen gerichtete Botschaft verkünden – damit sind v.a. die Stifterrel. Buddhismus, Christentum und Islam gemeint, aber auch der Manichäismus; zudem gibt es in dieser Klassifikation Universalrel., die keinen Stifter haben, wie die hell. Mysterienreligionen. Die »beiden Grundformen universaler Rel.« werden in der »Typenpolarität« von myst. und prophetischer Rel. erblickt (Ders. 294). In weiteren Rel., wie insbes. in der Rel. Israels (: II.,3.), hat es universalisierende Tendenzen gegeben (s.u. II.); in anderer Weise, namentlich in der Betonung des »Einen« (Monismus: I.), finden sich diese im Hinduismus. Die Abstufung der Pluralität der Götter »in Richtung auf die Einzahl« kann im Rahmen einer Religionstypologie in Orientierung an Gottesvorstellungen »der universalistische Typ« genannt werden (Colpe 429). Auch unter neuen religiösen Bewegungen gibt es zahlreiche Gruppierungen, die sich selbst als universalrel. verstehen, weil sie den Anspruch erheben, die allen Rel. gemeinsame Botschaft zu erfassen (vgl. gener…

[English Version] I. SprachwissenschaftlichAus sprachwiss. Sicht werden Eigennamen (nomen proprium) und Gattungsnamen (nomen appellativum) unterschieden, die beide der Funktion nach zu den Substantiven gehören. Eigennamen dienen der Benennung (d.h. der Identifizierung) von individuellen Personen, Örtlichkeiten, Sachverhalten oder als individuell gedachten Kollektiven und weisen einem Bezeichneten zunächst keine allg. Eigenschaften zu. Mit dem N. »Lena« ist außerhalb eines konkreten Kontextes keine …