(a.), the second call to the ṣalāt which is pronounced by the muʾad̲h̲d̲h̲in in the mosque before each of the five prescribed daily ṣalāts as well as before the ṣalāt at the Friday service. This second call is given at the moment at which the ṣalāt begins. The formulae of the iḳāma are the same as those of the ad̲h̲ān . According to the Ḥanafīs, they are repeated as often as in the ad̲h̲ān; according to the other schools, they are pronounced only once with the exception of the words “God is great”, which are repeated twice at the beginning as well as at the end of the iḳāma. Moreover, after the formul…

, festival. The word is derived by the Arab lexicographers from the root ʿwd and explained as “the (periodically) returning”. But it is in fact one of those Aramaic loanwords which are particularly numerous in the domain of religion; cf. for example the Syriac ʿīdā “festival, holiday”. The Muslim year has two canonical festivals, the ʿīd al-aḍḥā [ q.v.] or “sacrificial festival” on 10 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a and the ʿīd al-fiṭr [ q.v.] “festival of breaking the fast” on 1 S̲h̲awwāl. The special legal regulations for these are dealt with in the following articles. Comm…

, at the present time a town in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia about 70 km/45 miles south-east of the capital al-Riyāḍ [ q.v.] and situated in the region of al-K̲h̲ard̲j̲ within the al-Riyāḍ emirate, close to Maḥaṭṭat al-K̲h̲ard̲j̲ on the al-Riyāḍ to al-Ẓahrān (Dhahran) railway (Hussein Hamza Bindagji, Atlas of Saudi Arabia , Oxford 1980, 49; Zaki M.A. Farsi, National guide and atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1989, 71). The town is now relatively small and has a population of less than 50,000 (Bindagji, 3). The origin of the name may be yamāma , singular of the collective yamām …

(a.), pl. nawāfil , from n-f-l “to give something freely”, a term of law and theology meaning’ supererogatory work. 1. The word occurs in the Ḳurʾān in two places. Sūra XXI, 72, runs: “And we bestowed on him [viz. Ibrāhīm] Isaac and Jacob as an additional gift” ( nāfilatan ). In XVII, 81, it is used in combination with the vigils, thus: “And perform vigils during a part of the night, reciting the Ḳurʾān, as a nāfila for thee”. In ḥadīt̲h̲ it is frequently used in this sense. “Forgiveness of sins past and future was granted to him [Muḥammad] and his wor…

(a.), sermon, address by the k̲h̲aṭīb [ q.v.]. The k̲h̲uṭba has a fixed place in Islamic ritual, viz. in the Friday-service, in the celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an eclipse or excessive drought. On the Friday it precedes the ṣalāt , in all the other services the ṣalāt comes first. A short description of the rules for the k̲h̲uṭba according to al-S̲h̲īrāzī ( Tanbīh , ed. Juynboll, 40), one of the early S̲h̲āfiʿī doctors [ q.v.], may be given here. (a.) One of the conditions for the validity of the Friday service is that it must be…

(a.), also watr , a term found in ḥadīt̲h̲ and fiḳh in connection with performance of the ṣalāt or worship and concerned with the odd number of rakʿa s which are performed at night. Witr does not occur in this sense in the Ḳurʾān, but frequendy in ḥadīt̲h̲, which in this case also discloses to us a part of the history of the institution in three stages, itself probably a continuation of the history of the fixing of the daily ṣalāts, as the traditions on witr presuppose the five daily ṣalāts, Some traditions even go so far as to call witr an additional ṣalāt of an obligatory nature (see also below…

, “announcement”, a technical term for the call to the divine service of Friday and the five daily ṣalāts [see ṣalāt ]. According to Muslim tradition, the Prophet, soon after his arrival at Madīna (1 or 2 years after the ¶ Hid̲j̲ra), deliberated with his companions on the best manner of announcing to the faithful the hour of prayer. Some proposed that every time a fire should be kindled, a horn should be belown or nāḳūs (i.e. a long piece of wood clapped with another piece of wood; with such a nāḳūs the Christians in the East used at that time to announce the hour of prayer) should be…

(a.), “homeland, fatherland”, an Arabic near-equivalent of the term patria of the Latin Middle Ages in most of its shades. As we learn from normative lexicographical entries and actual usage in literary and historical texts alike, waṭan or mawṭin was, in the beginning, a wholly apolitical term denoting simply the place of birth or stay ( LʿA , Beirut ed., xiii, 451a, 1. 8). In al-S̲h̲arīf al-D̲j̲urd̲j̲ānī’s (d. 816/1413) Book of definitions ( Kitāb al-taʿrīfat , 237, ll. 18-20) we find the meaning of waṭan split into “permanent residence” and “temporary and transitory sojourn (…

, appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another or for oneself ( li...), or else against someone ( ʿalā ...); hence: prayer of invocation, calling either for blessing, or for imprecation and cursing, connected with the Semitic idea of the effective value of the spoken word. Cf. Ḳurʾān XVII, 11: “Man prays for evil as he prays for good”.— Duʿāʾ therefore will have the general sense of personal prayer addressed to God, and can often be translated as “prayer of request”. I.—The scope and practice of duʿāʾ . 1. In the Ḳurʾān, duʿāʾ always keeps its original meaning of invo…

(a.), verbal noun from djawwada , literally means “to make better” in the sense of taḥsīn “to embellish, beautify”, but has come to be understood generally as the art of reciting the Ḳurʾān, known as ʿilm al-tad̲j̲wīd . The term does not occur in the Ḳurʾān, but it was used early. For example, ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, son-in-law of the Prophet and fourth caliph, is reported to have replied in answer to a question about the meaning of the Ḳurʾānic phrase in sūra LXXIII, 4, wa-rattilī ’l-ḳurʾāna tartīlan (“and recite the Ḳurʾān by means of tartīl ”) that it means tad̲j̲wīd al-ḥurūf wa-maʿrifat al-wuḳūf …

(a.), ritual prayer. Unlike other types of prayer—in particular the prayer of supplication [see duʿāʾ ], the remembrance of the Divine Names [see d̲h̲ikr ] or Ṣūfī confraternities’ litanies [see wird ]—the ṣalāt , principal prayer of Islam, forms part of the ʿibādāt or cultic obligations. The word clearly derives from the Syriac ṣelōt̲ā “prayer” and had adopted its Arabic form before the Islamic period (see Jeffery, 198-9). The structure of this article will be as follows: I. In the Ḳurʾān. A. General insistence on prayer. In the Sacred Book of Islam, ṣalāt stands out prominently in an…

(a., pl. sad̲j̲ād̲j̲id , sad̲j̲ād̲j̲īd , sawād̲j̲id ), the carpet on which the ṣalāt [ q.v.] is performed. The word is found neither in the Ḳurʾān nor in the canonical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the occasional use of a floor-covering of some kind was, however, known at quite an early period. 1. Early tradition. In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.] we are often told how Muḥammad and his followers performed the ṣalāt on the floor of the mosque in Medina after a heavy shower of rain, so that their noses and heads came in contact with the mud (e.g. al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ad̲h̲ān , bāb s 135, 151; Muslim, Ṣiyām , trads…

(a.), mosque, the noun of place from sad̲j̲ada “to prostrate oneself, hence “place where one prostrates oneself [in worship]”. The modern Western European words (Eng. mosque , Fr. mosquée , Ger. Moschee , Ital. moschea ) come ultimately from the Arabic via Spanish mezquita . I. In the central Islamic lands A. The origins of the mosque up to the Prophet’s death. The word msgdʾ is found in Aramaic as early as the Jewish Elephantine Papyri (5th century B.C.), and appears likewise in Nabataean inscriptions with the meaning “place of worship…

(a.), infant, child, minor (opp. bālig̲h̲ [ q.v.]), one who has not attained to puberty (opp. kabīr ). Minority ends with the onset of physical maturity, and the ability to control one’s own affairs (see al-Wans̲h̲arīsī, ii, 269). In the absence of signs of physical maturity, fifteen was generally regarded as the age that divided between majority and minority for males and females alike (see bālig̲h̲ and Goldziher, Muh. Studien , ii, 17, Eng. tr. Muslim studies, ii, 29). Entrusting a boy or a girl with their respective adult functions was the accepted way to examine mental maturity ( rus̲h̲d …

(a.), the stars. There are two words in Arabic carrying the notion of “star”, nad̲j̲m , pl. nud̲j̲ūm (from the root n-d̲j̲-m , “to rise”), and kawkab , pl. kawākib (see WKAS, i, 440 b 28; cf. already Babyl. kakkabu; a reduplication of a basic root KB “to burn, to shine”). For the etymologies of the two words, see Eilers [1], 96 ff.; [2], 115; [3], 6 f. Both words occur frequently in the Ḳurʾān. In LV, 6, it remains in dispute whether al-nad̲j̲m u is to be understood as “the plants, or grasses” (as maintained by I.Y. Kračkovskiy and A. Fischer) or as “the stars” (see the recent …

, war. i.— Legal Aspect Ḥarb may mean either fighting ( ḳitāl ) in the material sense or a “state of war” between two or more groups; both meanings were implied in the legal order of pre-Islamic Arabia. Owing to lack of organized authority, war became the basis of inter-tribal relationship. Peace reigned only when agreed upon between two or more tribes. Moreover, war fulfilled such purposes as vendetta and retaliation. The desert, adapted to distant raids and without natural frontiers, rendered the Arabs habituated to warfare and fighting became a function of society. Islam, prohibiting …